Чучкина Инноватион течнологиес 2011
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VIII. Home Exercises (to be done in writing)
1. Translate the following sentences into Russian.
1.The challenge for the ancient (al)chemists was to make all nanoparticles the same size, and the production of single-size nanoparticles is still a challenge today.
2.We should not therefore expect them to have the same health, safety, social implications.
3.The aim of this chapter is to give an overview of the properties of some key nanomaterials.
4.Advances are being made to control the composition and smoothness of surfaces.
5.They also offer opportunities to link nanoand biotechnology in biocompatible sensors (e.g. small, simple motors).
6.Thus, particles can be made to emit or absorb specific wavelengths of light.
2.Translate the sentences into English.
1.Трудно представить все виды применения, которые в конечном итоге могут найти такие, бесконечно малые генераторы.
2.Способность этих энергетических установок производить энергию в очень маленьком (minuscule ['mini,skju:l]) масштабе позволяет нам думать об имплантируемых биосенсорах, которые могут осуществлять непрерывный мониторинг за уровнем глюкозы в крови пациента (patient’s blood glucose level).
3.Чтобы иметь практическое применение, необходимо, чтобы наши наногенераторы имели массивы нанопроводов и непрерывно производили электричество, которое может быть собрано и доставлено в прибор.
4.А энергия, которую необходимо преобразовать в электричество должна приходить в виде волны или колебания из среды, поэтому наногенератор может работать независимо и беспроводным способом (wirelessly).
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Unit 2
I.Grammar Review: The Complex Subject with the Infinitive
Сложное подлежащее.
Complex Subject
Noun / Pronoun |
Predicate |
Infinitive |
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a) Passive |
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is supposed |
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is reported |
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is required |
to test the device |
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is proved |
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b) Active |
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The engineer |
seems |
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appears |
to be testing the device |
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turns out |
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happens |
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proves |
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c) expressions |
to have tested the device |
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is likely |
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is unlikely |
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is sure |
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is certain |
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Перевод:
Predicate − a), b), c) – неопределенно-личное предложение,
Complex Subject: (Noun/Pronoun) + Infinitive – придаточное пред-
ложение с союзом 'что'
а) Полагают, |
проверяет / проверит |
b) По-видимому, (что) инженер |
проверяет (сейчас) прибор |
с) Вероятно, |
проверил (уже) |
1. Translate the sentences from English into Russian paying attention to the Complex Subject with the Infinitive.
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1.Advanced nuclear technology is reported to be the only currently viable large scale alternative to traditional coal-fueled generation.
2.According to the report, the South Texas project is said to be the first entirely new reactor.
3.The reactor at Browns Ferry in northern Alabama was sure to have been shuttered for 22 years due to maintenance problems.
4.Different gases are likely to differ in density.
5.The conclusions do not appear to agree with data presented.
6.Water is known to occur everywhere in nature.
7.The problem is not supposed to have been solved.
II.Laboratory Work N2
1.Translate the sentences into Russian.
1.The light water is considered to be less efficient as a moderator because it absorbs neutrons as well as slowing them.
2.Zirconium is said to be an important mineral for nuclear power where it finds the main use.
3.Reactors are certain to have been designed to run more than a decade between refueling.
4.Gadolinium is known to be a vital ingredient of fuel in naval reac-
tors.
5.The arrangement of a water-cooled reactor is believed to be a means of pressure control for the reactor.
6.This approach is thought to have a lot of drawbacks.
7.This technique was assumed to have been a convenient, if costly, way to deal with nuclear wastes – at least temporarily.
8.A short-term development is likely to be energy-absorbing materials that will withstand blast waves.
2. Translate the sentences into English using the Complex Subject.
1.Как полагают, Комиссия по Ядерному Урегулированию утверждает, что модернизация такого рода существующего оборудования, охватит большинство атомных электростанций.
2.Ожидается, что TVA закончит строительство в 2013 году, затратив $ 2.49 миллиардов.
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3.Предполагается, что комиссия приняла решение о том, что высокорадиоактивные отходы позднее будут отправлены обратно в страны – производители.
4.В течение нескольких следующих лет планируется закрыть перерабатывающие заводы.
5.Известно, что во время холодной войны плутоний для ядерного оружия получали (восстанавливали) в США на восстанавливающих заводах.
3.Word-building. Pay attention to suffixes and prefixes and guess the meanings of the words.
1.V + ant/ent = (adj/noun): significant, coolant, component.
2.V + able [ədl]/ ible = (adj.) : suitable, fissionable, capable, probable
3.N + ize/ ise/ yse [aiz] = (v.): characterize, thermalize, commercialize, specialize, centralize.
4.en +adj. = (v.) : enlarge, enrich, enable, enforce, enclose.
5.trans: transmutation, transatlantic, transformer, transgenic
4. Words to learn. Pay attention to the active vocabulary of Unit 2.
1.result in (syn. bring about, give rise to) – давать в результате,
приводить к result from (syn. result from) – являться (быть) результатом
1.Thermal neutrons have a far higher probability of fissioning ura- nium-235, and a lower probability of capture by uranium-238 than the fast neutrons that result from fission.
2.The insight must be put into action to make a genuine difference, resulting for example in new or altered business processes within the organization.
2. once – a. conj. – как только, т.к., b. раз, однажды
1.Once started the chain reaction never stops.
2.Thus, a breeder reactor, once running, can be re-fueled with natural or even depleted uranium.
3.Once innovation occurs, innovations may be spread from the innovator to other individuals and groups.
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3. unless otherwise stated (specified, mentioned, indicated) – ес-
ли не указано особо
1.This article assumes that the technology is nuclear fission unless otherwise stated.
2.Unless otherwise specified, these devices must be used whenever available.
4.rather (adv.) – скорее
rather + прилагат., причастие – довольно, весьма rather than – 1. а не 2. вместо того, чтобы
5.Practise the pronunciation of the following words from Reading
2A.
Technology [ tek’noləd3i], bomb [bom], occur [ə’kə], accompany [ə'kΛmpəni], conventional [kən'ven∫ənl], thermal ['θə:ml], fission ['fi∫n], fusion ['fju:3n], fusor ['fju:zə], nuclear ['nju:kliə], nucleus ['nju:kliəs], neutron ['nju:tron], uranium[ju'reinjəm], plutonium [plu'touniəm], trigger ['trigə], electricity [ilek'trisiti], explosion [iks'plou3n], control [kən'troul] (n),(v), increase (v) [in'kri:s], increase (n) ['inkri:s], assembly [ə'sembli], percent [pə'sent], scheme [ski:m], commercial [kə'mə:∫l], commercialize [kə’mə:∫əlaiz], thorium ['θo:riəm], otherwise ['Λðəwaiz], roughly ['rΛfli], characterize ['kəriktəraiz], average ['ævrid3], kinetic [kai'netik], probability [,probə'biliti], shielding ['∫i:ldiŋ], hydrogen ['haidrid3ən], obstacle ['obstəkl], effort ['efət], breeder ['bri:də], depleted [di'pli:tid], accomplish [ə 'kompli∫], complexes ['kompleksi:z].
III. Reading 2A
1. Before reading the passage answer the following question:
What reactor types do you know and what is their difference, if any?
Upon reading the text check your answer.
Nuclear Reactor Technology
A nuclear reactor is known to be a device in which nuclear chain reactions are initiated, controlled, and sustained at a steady rate, as opposed to a nuclear bomb, in which the chain reaction occurs in a fraction of a second and is uncontrolled causing an explosion.
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The most significant use of nuclear reactors is as an energy source for the generation of electrical power and for the power in some ships. This is usually accomplished by methods that involve using heat from the nuclear reaction to power steam turbines.
How it works?
Conventional thermal power plants all are certain to have a fuel source to provide heat. Examples are gas, coal, or oil. For a nuclear power plant, this heat is provided by nuclear fission inside the nuclear reactor. When a relatively large fissile atomic nucleus (usually uranium235 or plutonium-239) is struck by a neutron it forms two or more smaller nuclei as fission products, releasing energy and neutrons in a process called nuclear fission. The neutrons then trigger further fission. And so on. When this nuclear chain reaction is controlled, the energy released can be used to heat water, produce steam and drive a turbine that generates electricity. It should be noted that a nuclear explosive involves an uncontrolled chain reaction, and the rate of fission in a reactor is not capable of reaching sufficient levels to trigger a nuclear explosion (even if the fission reaction increased to a point of being out of control, it would melt the reactor assembly rather than form a nuclear explosion). Enriched uranium is uranium in which the percent composition of uranium -235 has been increased from that of uranium found in nature. Natural uranium is only 0.72% uranium-235, with the rest being mostly uranium-238 (99.2745%) and a tiny fraction is uranium-234 (0.0055%).
Reactor types
Classifications
Nuclear Reactors are classified by several methods; a brief outline of one of these classification schemes is provided.
Classification by type of nuclear reaction
• Nuclear fission. Most reactors, and all commercial ones, are based on nuclear fission. They generally use uranium as fuel. This article assumes that the technology is nuclear fission unless otherwise stated. Fis-
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sion reactors can be divided roughly into two classes, depending on the energy of the neutrons that are used to sustain the fission chain reaction.
•Thermal reactors use slow or thermal neutrons. Most power reactors are of this type. These are characterized by neutron moderator materials that slow neutrons until they approach the average kinetic energy of the surrounding particles, that is, until they are thermalized. Thermal neutrons have a far higher probability of fissioning uranium-235 than the faster neutrons that result from fission.
•Nuclear fusion. Fusion power is an experimental technology, generally with hydrogen as fuel. While not currently suitable for power production, Farnsworth-Hirsch fusors are used to produce neutron radiation. Controlled nuclear fusion could in principle be used in fusion power plants to produce power, but significant scientific and technical obstacles remain. Several fusion reactors have been built, but as yet none has ‘produced’ more thermal energy than electrical energy consumed.
(http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf32.html)
2.Read the passage a second time and find the English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
Цепная реакция; поддерживаемая с постоянной скоростью; за долю секунды; вызывая; два или более; в качестве продуктов деления; электроэнергия; стандартная (типовая); тепловая электростанция; атомная электростанция; ядерный реактор; ядерное деление; цепная реакция; управляемая; ядерный взрыв; неуправляемая цепная реакция; выйти из-под контроля; процентный состав; при этом остальная часть будет в основном; поддерживать цепную реакцию деления.
3.Saying Numbers.
In English, we use a point (.) and not a comma (,) for decimals.We use commas in figures only when writing thousands.
10.001 is ten point oh oh one.
10,001 is ten thousand and one.
In English all the numbers after a decimal point are read separately.
10.66 is ten point six six.
0.325 is nought point three two five
0.001 is nought point oh oh one.
Now say this in English:
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1.It’s somewhere between 3.488 and 3.491.
2.Look, it’s less than 0.0001!
3.No, I meant 15.005 not 15,005.
IV. Class exercises
1. Fill in the blanks with the proper words from the text.
1.A nuclear reactor is a device with chain reaction _______ at steady rate.
2.Conventional thermal power plants have a fuel source to ______
______ .
3.The energy released because of a nuclear chain reaction can be used to ________ water, _________ steam, and _______ a turbine that
________ electricity.
4.It should be noted that ______ _______ would melt the reactor assembly rather than form a nuclear explosion.
5.________ _______ can be divided into two classes depending on the energy of the neutrons that are used to sustain the fission chain reaction.
6.Thermal reactors are characterized by ________ ________ mate-
rials.
7.Controlled nuclear fusion could in principle be used in fusion power plants to _____ _______.
2.Write T ( for True) or F ( for False) next to the statement given below.
1.The neutrons don't trigger further fission. _____
2.When this nuclear chain reaction is controlled, the energy released cannot be used to heat water. _____
3.Most reactors are based on nuclear fission. _____
4.Thermal reactors use slow or thermal neutrons. _____
5.Thermal neutrons have less higher probability of fissioning ura- nium-235 than the faster neutrons that result from fission. ____
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V.Reading 2B
1.Before reading the text answer the question:
Why are some reactors called light water reactors?
Upon reading the text check your answer.
There are several different types of reactors as indicated in the following table.
Nuclear power plants in commercial operation
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Reactor |
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Main |
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Number |
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GWe |
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type |
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Countries |
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Pressurised |
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US, |
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Water |
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France, |
264 |
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250.5 |
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Reactor |
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Japan, |
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(PWR) |
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Russia |
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Boiling |
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US, |
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Water |
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Japan, |
94 |
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86.4 |
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Reactor |
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Sweden |
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(BWR) |
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Pressurised |
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Heavy Wa- |
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Canada |
43 |
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23.6 |
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ter Reactor |
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'CANDU' |
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(PHWR) |
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Gas-cooled |
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Reactor |
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UK |
18 |
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10.8 |
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(AGR & |
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Magnox) |
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Light Wa- |
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ter Gra- |
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Russia |
12 |
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12.3 |
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phite Reac- |
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tor |
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(RBMK) |
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Fast |
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Japan, |
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Neutron |
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France, |
4 |
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1.0 |
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Reactor |
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Russia |
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(FBR) |
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Other |
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Russia |
4 |
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0.05 |
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TOTAL |
439 |
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384.6 |
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Fuel
enriched UO2
enriched UO2
natural UO2
natural
U(metal),
enriched UO2
enriched UO2
PuO2
and UO2
enriched UO2
Coolant Moderator
water water
water water
heavy heavy water water
CO2 graphite
water graphite
liquid none sodium
water graphite
GWe = capacity in thousands of megawatts (gross) Source: Nuclear Engineering International Handbook 2007
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Most reactors need to be shut down for *refuelling, so that the pressure vessel can be opened up. In this case refuelling is at intervals of 1-2 years, *when a quarter to a third of the fuel assemblies are replaced with fresh ones. The CANDU and RBMK types have pressure tubes (*rather than a pressure vessel enclosing the reactor core) and can be refuelled under load by disconnecting individual pressure tubes.
If graphite or heavy water is used as moderator, it is possible to run a power reactor on *natural instead of enriched uranium. Natural uranium has the same *elemental composition as when it was *mined (0.7% U-235, over 99.2% U-238), enriched uranium has had the proportion of the *fissile isotope (U-235) increased by a process called enrichment, commonly to 3.5–5.0%. In this case the moderator can be ordinary water, and such reactors are collectively called light water reactors. Because the light water absorbs neutrons as well as slowing them, it is less efficient as a moderator than *heavy water or graphite.
Practically all fuel is ceramic uranium oxide (UO2 with a *melting point of 2800°C) and most is enriched. The fuel pellets (usually about 1 cm diameter and 1.5 cm long) are typically arranged in a long zirconium alloy (zircalloy) tube to form a* fuel rod, the zirconium being hard, cor- rosion-resistant and permeable to neutrons. Numerous rods form a fuel assembly, which is an open lattice and can be lifted into and out of the *reactor core. In the most common reactors these are about 3.5 to 4 metres long.
*Zirconium is an important mineral for nuclear power, where it finds its main use. It is therefore subject to controls on trading. It is normally *contaminated with hafnium, a neutron absorber, so very pure 'nuclear grade' Zr is used to make the zircaloy, which is about 98% Zr plus tin, iron, chromium and sometimes nickel to enhance its strength.
Burnable poisons are often used (especially in BWR) in fuel or *coolant to even out the performance of the reactor over time from fresh fuel being loaded to refuelling. These are neutron absorbers which *decay under neutron exposure, compensating for the progressive build up of neutron absorbers in the fuel as it is burned. The best known is gadolinium, which is a vital ingredient of fuel in naval reactors where installing fresh fuel is very inconvenient, so reactors are designed to run more than a decade between *refuellings.
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