- •Contents
- •Part I philosophy
- •Philosophy: the range of philosophical problems and the role and significance in culture.
- •1.1. Philosophy as Specific Type of Knowledge
- •1.2. The Subject Matter and the Nature of Philosophy
- •1.3. Philosophy as Theoretical Basis of Worldview
- •1.4. Philosophy as General Methodology
- •1.5. The Specific Place of Philosophy in Culture. Functions of Philosophy
- •Questions and Tasks for Self -Control
- •Literature
- •Philosophy of the middle ages
- •3.1. Historical and Social-Cultural Grounds for the Development of Mediaeval Philosophy, Its Characteristic Features and Problems of Research
- •3.2. Basic Philosophical Ideas in the Period of Patristics
- •3.3. Scholasticism as Basic Stream of Medieval Philosophy
- •3.4. Argumentation on the Universals. Nominalists and Realists
- •Questions and Tasks for Self -Control
- •Philosophy of the renaissance
- •4.1. Humanism – New Worldview Orientation of the Renaissance: Historical and Cultural Grounds
- •4.2. Revival of Platonic Tradition. Nicolas of Cusa
- •4.3. Natural Philosophy and New Science
- •4.4. Social Theories of the Renaissance
- •Questions and Tasks for Self -Control
- •Literature
- •Philosophy of the modern ages
- •5.2. Empiricism. English Philosophy of XVII Century
- •5.3. Rationalism. European Philosophy of XVII Century
- •5.4. Philosophy of Enlightenment
- •Словарь - Открыть словарную статью
- •Questions and Tasks for self-control
- •Literature
- •German classical philosophy
- •6.1. Historical Social and Cultural Grounds for the German Classical Philosophy Development
- •6.2. I. Kant and His Critical Philosophy
- •6.3. Idealism: Fichte and Schelling on Road to Hegel
- •6.5. L. Feuerbach as Necessary Stepping Stone for Non-Classic Philosophy of XIX-XX Centuries
- •Questions and Tasks for self-control
- •Unit 7 european philosophy of the XIX-XX centuries
- •7.1. General Characteristics of XIX-XX Centuries’ Philosophy. Historical Social and Cultural Grounds for Its Development
- •7.2. Romantic Movement as Grounds for
- •7.3. Currents of Thought in XIX Century and
- •7.4. Variety of Doctrines in XIX–XX Centuries
- •Questions and Tasks for Self-Control
- •Literature
- •Formation and development of philosophical thought in ukraine
- •8.1. Ukrainian Philosophical Culture and Its Specificity
- •8.2. Philosophical Thought in Period of Kyiv Rus
- •8.3. Ukrainian Philosophy of XV–XVIII Centuries
- •8.4. Ukrainian Philosophy in XIX –First Third of XX Centuries
- •8.5. Philosophical Thought in Ukraine in XX-XXI Centuries
- •Congenial work (after h. Skovoroda) is a creative potential of human beings and the possibility of self-fulfillment in this life.
- •Questions and Tasks for Self-Control
- •Literature
- •Outline theory of dialectics
- •9.1. Dialectics and Its Historical Forms
- •9.2. Principles and Laws of Dialectics
- •9.3. Laws of Dialectics
- •9.4. Categories of Dialectics
- •Questions and Tasks for Self-Control:
- •Literature:
- •Philosophical theory of being
- •10.1. “Being” as Philosophical Category. Unity and Structuredness of Being
- •10.2. Philosophical Category of “Matter”. Structure of Matter in Contemporary Science
- •10.3. Motion, Space and Time as Attributes of Matter. Social Space and Social Time as Forms of Human Being in Culture
- •Questions and Tasks for Self-Control
- •Literature
- •Jan Westerhoff. Ontological Categories: Their nature and Significance / Jan Westerhoff. — New York : Oxford University Press, 2005. − 261 p.
- •Philosophical conception of man
- •11.1. Development of Concept of Man in the History of Philosophy
- •11.2. Man as Biopsychosocial Being
- •11.3. Man and His Environment: from the Earth to Outer Space
- •11.4. Man. Personality. Society
- •11.5. Problem of Man’s Being Purport
- •Questions and Tasks for Self-Control
- •Literature
- •Philosophical problem of consciousness
- •12.1. Problem of Consciousness in Different Philosophical Teachings
- •12.2. Role of Practical Activity, Communication and Speech in Formation and Development of Consciousness
- •12.3. Structure of Consciousness. Consciousness and Unconsciousness
- •12.4. Consciousness and Self-Consciousness
- •Questions and Tasks for Self-Control:
- •Literature:
- •Theory of cognition
- •13.1. Cognition as Object of Philosophical Analysis
- •13.2. Methods and Forms of Scientific Cognition
- •13.3. Problem of Truth
- •13.4. Practice as the Basis and Purpose of Cognition
- •Questions and Tasks for Self-Control:
- •Literature
- •Social philosophy: subject matter and structure
- •14.1. Specific Character of Social Philosophy. Social Being and Social Consciousness
- •14.2. Philosophical Meaning of the Concept of Society. Society as System
- •14.3. Social System’s Structure and Its Basic Elements
- •14.4. Historical Periodization of Social Development
- •Questions and Tasks for Self-Control:
- •Literature
- •Social production as mode of man’s being in culture
- •15.1. The Concept of Culture in Philosophy. Culture as a Symbolic World of Human Existence
- •15.2. Material Culture, Its Structure
- •15.3. Spiritual Culture, Its Structure
- •Questions and Tasks for Self-Control
- •Political sphere of society`s life as philosophical problem
- •16.1. Politics and Political System of Society. Structure of Politics
- •16.2. State as Basic Political Institution
- •Literature
- •Plato. Republic / Plato : [transl. By g.M.A. Gruber]. — Indianapolis : Hackett Publishing, 1992. — 300 p.
- •Philosophy of history
- •17.1. History as Object of Philosophical Research: Historical Development of Circle of Problems. Meaning of History
- •17.2. Coincidence of Evolutional and Revolution Principles
- •In the Development of Mankind’s Civilization
- •17.3. Role and Significance of Masses of People and Personalities in History
- •Questions and Tasks for Self-Control
- •Literature
- •Strategy of future
- •18.1. Opposition “Modern-Postmodern” in Mankind’s Cultural and Civilized Development
- •18.2. Global Problems of Today as Negative Consequences of Modern Culture
- •18.3. Phenomenon of Globalization in Modern Civilized Development
- •Questions and Tasks for self-control
- •Literature
- •Part II logic
- •Logic as philosophical and scientific discipline
- •19.1. Subject of Logic. Sensual and Abstract Cognition
- •19.2. Logical Functions and Laws of Thinking
- •19.3. Functions of Logic
- •Questions and Tasks for Self-Control
- •Literature
- •Logical forms of thinking
- •20.1. Concept as Form of Abstract Thinking
- •Identity (Sameness)
- •20.2. Proposition and Its Structure
- •Inductive reasoning
- •Literature
- •Logical basis of argumentation
- •21.1. Structure of Argumentation
- •21.2. Logical Fallacies
- •Questions and Tasks for Self-Control
- •Part III religion studies
- •Religion: essence, structure and historical forms
- •22.1. Religion studies as a philosophical discipline.
- •22.2. Religion: Structure and Functions
- •22.3. Historical Types and Forms of Religion
- •Literature
- •Primitive religious beliefs and ethnic religions
- •23.1. Primitive Religions
- •23.2. Ethnical Religions
- •Literature
- •The world religions
- •24.1. Buddhism
- •24.2. Judeo-Christian tradition
- •24.3. Islam. Fundamental Tenets of Islam
- •3) Belief in the Prophets and Messengers
- •4) Belief in the Sacred Texts
- •5) Belief in Life after Death
- •6) Belief in the Divine Decree
- •1) The Declaration of Faith
- •2) The Prayer (Salah)
- •3) The Compulsory Charity (Zakah)
- •4) The Fast of Ramadan (Sawm)
- •5) The fifth Pillar is the Pilgrimage or Hajj to Mecca
- •The Branches of Islam
- •Questions and Tasks for Self-Control
- •Literature
- •Religion in modern world
- •25.1. Specific Character of Development of Religion in Modern Time: Modernism and Fundamentalism
- •25.2. New Religions: Essence, Origin and Classifications
- •25.3. Why Do People Join New Religious Movements?
- •25.4. Tolerance
- •25.5. Religious Toleration and History of Struggle for Freedom of Conscience in Europe
- •25.6. Human Rights
- •25.7. Legislative Guarantee of Freedom of Conscience
- •In Independent Ukraine
- •Questions and Tasks for Self-Control
- •Literature
- •26.2. Morality and Morals
- •26.3. Origin of Morality
- •Questions and tasks for self-control
- •Literature
- •Notion and the structure of moral consciousness. Categories of ethics.
- •27.1. Moral Consciousness in the System of Morality. Structure of Moral Consciousness
- •27.2. Moral Norms and Principles. Motives and Value Orientation
- •27.3. Main Ethical Categories
- •Questions and Tasks for Self-Control
- •Literature
- •Moral world of man. Problems of applied ethics
- •28.1. Moral Necessity and Moral Freedom
- •28.2. Moral Choice and Responsibility
- •28.3. Love as Essential Component of Human Being
- •28.4. Problems of Applied Ethics
- •Questions and Tasks for Self-Control
- •Part V aesthetics
- •Aesthetics as philosophical discipline
- •29.1. Development of Concept of Aesthetics in History of Philosophy
- •29.2. Aesthetics and Other Disciplines
- •29.3. Basic Categories of Aesthetics
- •Questions and Tasks for Self-Control
- •Literature
- •Art as social phenomenon
- •30.1. Origin of Concept of Art
- •30.2. Art as Social Phenomenon
- •30.3. Forms of Art
- •30.4. Specificity of Artistic Creation Process
- •30.5. Search of Art in XXI Century
- •Questions and Tasks for Self-Control
- •Literature
- •The list of literature Basic Literature
- •Jan Westerhoff. Ontological Categories: Their Nature and Significance / Jan Westerhoff. — New York : Oxford University Press, 2005. − 261 p.
- •Supplementary Literature
- •J.L. Acrill. Essays on Plato and Aristotle / j.L. Acrill. – New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. — 251 p.
- •John Burnet. Early Greek Philosophy / John Burnet. – [4 ed.] – London: a. & c. Black, 1952. — 375 p.
- •Roy Burrel. The Greeks / Roy Burrel. – Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1989. — 243 p.
- •Primary sources
- •Plato. Collected dialogues / Plato : [transl. By Lane Cooper and others]. – Princeton : Princeton University Press, 1961. — 1743 p.
- •Plato. Republic / Plato : [transl. By g.M.A. Gruber]. — Indianapolis : Hackett Publishing, 1992. — 300 p.
Literature
Basic:
Safire’s Political Dictionary / William Safire. New York : Oxford University Press, 2008. — 862 p.
Supplementary:
European Politics Today / Geoffrey Roberts and Patricia Hogwood. — New York : Manchester University Press, 1997. — 394 p.
Primary sources:
Aristotle. Politics / Aristotle : [transl. by Benjamin Jowett] // www.constitution.org/ari/polit_00.htm
Immanuel Kant. Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals / Immanuel Kant. — New York : Cambridge University Press, 1987. — 174 p.
Plato. Republic / Plato : [transl. By g.M.A. Gruber]. — Indianapolis : Hackett Publishing, 1992. — 300 p.
Unit 17
Philosophy of history
The aim of the theme is: to introduce students to the subject of philosophy of history, to determine basic differences of the processes of human history and those of nature; to explore philosophical issues of history and main approaches to the problem of the direction and meaning of history; the coincidence of progress and regress, of material and spiritual factors of the historical process development.
Key words of the theme are: philosophy of history, orientation of the historical process, meaning of history, evolution, revolution, progress, regress, role of personality in history, a historical personality.
17.1. History as Object of Philosophical Research: Historical Development of Circle of Problems. Meaning of History
Investigating any social phenomenon one can realize its essence and place in the development of history only by analyzing its inseparable links with society as a whole during all historical process. Puzzling over the world history man wonders whether there is any sense and goal in historical development, what direction history is moving to, and if there is any meaning of history. All these questions are answered by philosophy of history, a constituent part of social philosophy which is interested in the analysis and interpretation of historical process and historical cognition. As the object of investigation of philosophy of history mankind’s historical process is subjected to philosophical comprehension and philosophical reflexion. The basic problems of philosophy of history are as the following: the meaning of history; direction of historical process; motive forces of history; the role and significance of masses of people and personality in history.
The term of “philosophy of history” was initiated by A. Voltaire in the XVIII century. And it was J.G. Herder who made it a part of European terminology after having edited his work “Ideas as for Mankind’s Philosophy of History” and G. Hegel who delivered lectures on philosophy of history in Berlin University. Nevertheless comprehension of history as a specific sphere of reality took place at all stages of the development of philosophical thought.
Does historical process have its own qualitative specificity? There are several approaches to answer this question:
History is a part of universal natural-cosmic process (Antique philosophy, Medieval philosophy, partially Renaissance philosophy);
History has its own specificity and in some definite aspects is different from natural-cosmic processes (Modern Ages philosophy, German classic philosophy);
History is the sphere of realization of human essential properties or possibilities of human nature (partially philosophy of Renaissance and Modern ages and non-classical philosophy)
Another question is: What is the direction of human history?
There are different approaches to understanding the object and the circle of problems of philosophy of history as it has been constantly changing up to present day and even now representatives of various philosophical trends consider historical process and its direction in a different way.
Antique philosophy added human history to universal cosmic rotation. History was moved by supernatural forces though people, as Thucydides stated, played a significant role in history. Antique philosophers Herodotus, Plato, Thucydides, Aristotle, Plutarch and others regarded history as an interaction of man and nature; they described historical events beyond their theoretical systematization and without elaborating an integral philosophical-historical system. Historical development was thought as an exclusive circle with infinite cyclical returns to the same point. Historical events were never compared and evaluated, sometimes they were opposed as “perfect-imperfect”, “higher-lower” (Empedocles). Ancient Greeks thought that history started in some indefinite time and moved unchangingly in unknown direction.
In the Middle Ages, on the contrary, natural processes were subjected to human history, the central idea of which was God and man relationship. History was strictly directed within the frame of several important events: transgression of protohumans Adam and Eva, First coming of Jesus Christ as the central historical event, Crucifixion and Resurrection of Jesus Christ, the Second coming of Christ and his Last judgment meaning Apocalypses of human history. History acquired linear and progressive way of development, it was regarded as realization of God’s Will, the providence; providentialism was meant as the basic philosophical principle.
In the epoch of Renaissance history was thought as a sphere where human strength was tried. The idea of cyclic character of development was set forth, each rising in history being accompanied by decline, and each decline – by rising. The amplitude of such cycles was constantly growing: the deeper decay – the higher rising. The meaning of history and its motive forces were found in Earthly natural being, in individual’s being in particular. Man as he is appeared in the focus of philosophy of history.
In Modern Ages the problems of history directedness, the human role (both of individuals and classes) in historical process, the idea of social laws became the object of philosophy of history investigations. Fr. Bacon, Th. Hobbes, O. Thierry, O. Mignet and others stated that society should correspond to both the world and human nature; man should be able to realize his aims and achieve his ideals.
One of the first attempts to create a theoretically based periodization of mankind’s history was made by Italian philosopher Giambattista Vico.
He thought that all the nations are subjected to a common law and have to take the same way of development. They go through three epochs in their development - divine, heroic and human which correspond to primitive barbarism, feudalism and civilization (epoch of state, towns, juridical laws). Every cycle finally comes to general decay and then destruction of the given society. But what would be then? The end of history? No, a new cycle begins but this time at the higher level of development.
The existence of cycles in nature and society has attracted attention of philosophers and scientists since ancient times. Thus, in ancient Chinese "Book of Changes" the World processes were described as repetitive interchange of situations that were born from the interaction of light and darkness. Vico’s ideas are also intrinsic to cyclic theories of culture and civilizations of M. Danilevsky, O. Spengler and A. Toynbee.
I. Herder brought some novelty into philosophy of history. He suggested that “philosophy is pluralistic”. Every culture develops independently as a variant of historical process and it should be evaluated according to its own inner criteria. The development of every culture is but one of the possibilities of mankind’s historical development. Herder also considered that people and nations who have the right for sovereignty are the motive forces of historical process.
F. Shelling underlined the essential difference between natural history and social one claiming that history has its own quality that makes it peculiar as for nature and human manifestations.
Innovative ideas in understanding the peculiar character of social development though on idealistic base was created by G. Hegel.
He regarded history as a single natural process, in which every epoch is unique and an inimitable one but at the same time it is the subsequent stage in mankind’s development. This process is different from natural regularity for historical laws are realized through people’s conscious activity; nevertheless there is some definite objective logic in history so historical process is just infinite unfolding of its inner opposites and self-development of World Reason, of Absolute Idea. The World history is the progress in understanding freedom that is carried out through man. Hegel worked out the spiral-like theory of development.
K. Marx and F. Engels made a great contribution into philosophy of history by creating the concept of materialistic understanding of history. They stressed the role of material production as primary condition of social existence; in the final analysis material production is the main motive force in historical process; people themselves create their own history but in accordance with the objective laws of its development.
In the XIX–XX century’s new conceptions of historical process appeared: gnosiological (W. Dilthey, R. Collingwood and R. Aron; ontological (R. Mell, R. Ramon, E. Kallo); axiological (W. Windelband, H. Rickert) and technological (D. Bell, O. Toffler, Z. Bzhezingsky, J. Gelbrait).
Gnosiological approach was formed in the second half of the XIX century; the founder was German philosopher of culture W. Dilthey, who identified life as a mode of human being and history. He did not believe that objective scientific awareness of historical process is possible, for people estimate historical events on the base of their own values and viewpoints. Gnosiological approach is also often called “critical philosophy of history” as the representatives of this school dealt with methodological problems of historical cognition;, they researched the specific character of human history. French philosopher R. Aron is considered to be the founder of this brunch.
The representatives of Ontological approach insist that there are ontological problems that is: mankind’s meaning and development, the essence of historical process, the possibilities to predict future, man’s role and place in historical process etc., that should be focused in the philosophy of history.
In Axiological approach philosophy of history is thought as the theory of values that exposes the nature and the essence of values and also the ways of carrying them out into human being and activity. The representatives of Baden school W. Windelband and H. Rickert, who initiated and developed this theory, regarded values to have suprahistorical character; these values form an ideal independent of people world. Having realized the meaning and the essence of values people are guided by them in their practical life. Windelband and Rickert insisted on the primacy of spiritual being over material.
Technological approach in contemporary West philosophy of history lends greater importance to technique regarding it a decisive factor in social life and progress. The authors of the theories of “postindustrial society”, “informational society” etc. D. Bell, O. Toffler, Z. Bzhezinsky and others stated that industrialization alone is capable to rationally regulate and master society’s and human being. Microelectronic revolution which is being developed in postindustrial society makes information the fundamental social factor in historical progress.
In the XIX-XX centuries a new polylinear civilization-culturological approach appeared, the basic idea being the existence of great number cultures and civilizations, their local character and various essences. Its proponents M. Danilevsky, O. Spengler and A. Toynbee insisted that each culture develops as an independent organism and they rejected monolinear scheme of social progress.
K. Jaspers, German existentialist philosopher has got an interesting viewpoint as for the problem of mankind’s history directedness. He explains the meaning of history, the structure and forms of its development with the help of so called “axial time” which is a kind of “pivot” of historical process directedness that runs throughout all types of cultures. Axial time is a special synthesis of material and spiritual culture in their universal meanings.
A. Toynbee’s idea of civilization fracture and its influence upon society’s spiritual being is rather suggestive in modern philosophy of history researches.
This brief historical revision of philosophical views shows dissimilarity of history of philosophy approaches to clarifying the meaning and directedness of history but all of them are common in recognizing the basic problems of philosophy of history that are as the following: the meaning of history; direction of historical process; motive forces of history; the role and significance of mass of people and personality in history.