- •Preface
- •Acronyms
- •Introduction
- •Background and objectives
- •Content, format and presentation
- •Radioactive waste management in context
- •Waste sources and classification
- •Introduction
- •Radioactive waste
- •Waste classification
- •Origins of radioactive waste
- •Nuclear fuel cycle
- •Mining
- •Fuel production
- •Reactor operation
- •Reprocessing
- •Reactor decommissioning
- •Medicine, industry and research
- •Medicine
- •Industry
- •Research
- •Military wastes
- •Conditioning of radioactive wastes
- •Treatment
- •Compaction
- •Incineration
- •Conditioning
- •Cementation
- •Bituminisation
- •Resin
- •Vitrification
- •Spent fuel
- •Process qualification/product quality
- •Volumes of waste
- •Inventories
- •Inventory types
- •Types of data recorded
- •Radiological data
- •Chemical data
- •Physical data
- •Secondary data
- •Radionuclides occurring in the nuclear fuel cycle
- •Simplifying the number of waste types
- •Radionuclide inventory priorities
- •Material priorities
- •Inventory evolution
- •Assumptions
- •Errors
- •Uncertainties
- •Conclusions
- •Acknowledgements
- •References
- •Development of geological disposal concepts
- •Introduction
- •Historical evolution of geological disposal concepts
- •Geological disposal
- •Definitions and comparison with near-surface disposal
- •Development of geological disposal concepts
- •Roles of the geosphere in disposal options
- •Physical stability
- •Hydrogeology
- •Geochemistry
- •Overview
- •Alternatives to geological disposal
- •Introduction
- •Politically blocked options: sub-seabed and Antarctic icecap disposal
- •Sea dumping and sub-seabed disposal
- •Antarctic icesheet disposal
- •Technically impractical options; partitioning and transmutation, space disposal and icesheet disposal
- •Partitioning and Transmutation
- •Space disposal
- •Icesheets and permafrost
- •Non-options; long-term surface storage
- •Alternatives to conventional repositories
- •Introduction
- •Alternative geological disposal concepts
- •Utilising existing underground facilities
- •Extended storage options (CARE)
- •Injection into deep aquifers and caverns
- •Deep boreholes
- •Rock melting
- •The international option: technical aspects
- •Alternative concepts: fitting the management option to future boundary conditions
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Site selection and characterisation
- •Introduction
- •Prescriptive/geologically led
- •Sophisticated/advocacy led
- •Pragmatic/technically led
- •Centralised/geologically led
- •Conclusions to be drawn
- •Lessons to be learned (see Table 4.2)
- •Site characterisation
- •Can we define the natural environment sufficiently thoroughly?
- •Sedimentary environments
- •Hydrogeology
- •The regional hydrogeological model
- •More local hydrogeological model(s)
- •Crystalline rock environments
- •Lithology and structure
- •Hydrogeology
- •Hydrogeochemistry
- •Any geological environment
- •References
- •Repository design
- •Introduction: general framework of the design process
- •Identification of design requirements/constraints
- •Concept development
- •Major components of the disposal system and safety functions
- •A structured approach for concept development
- •Detailed design/specifications of subsystems
- •Near-field processes and design issues
- •Design approach and methodologies
- •Design confirmation and demonstration
- •Interaction with PA/SA
- •Demonstration and QA
- •Repository management
- •Future perspectives
- •References
- •Assessment of the safety and performance of a radioactive waste repository
- •Introduction
- •The role of SA and the safety case in decision-making
- •SA tasks
- •System description
- •Identification of scenarios and cases for analysis
- •Consequence analysis
- •Timescales for evaluation
- •Constructing and presenting a safety case
- •References
- •Repository implementation
- •Legal and regulatory framework; organisational structures
- •Waste management strategies
- •The need for a clear policy and strategy
- •Timetables vary widely
- •Activities in development of a geological repository
- •Concept development
- •Siting
- •Repository design
- •Licensing
- •Construction
- •Operation
- •Monitoring
- •Research and development
- •The staging process
- •Attributes of adaptive staging
- •The decision-making process
- •Status of geological disposal programmes
- •Overview
- •Status of geological disposal projects in selected countries
- •International repositories
- •Costs and financing
- •Cost estimates
- •Financing
- •Conclusions
- •Acknowledgements
- •References
- •Research and development infrastructure
- •Introduction: Management of research and development
- •Drivers for research and development
- •Organisation of R&D
- •R&D in specialised (nuclear) facilities
- •Introduction
- •Inventory
- •Release of radionuclides from waste forms
- •Solubility and sorption
- •Waste form dissolution
- •Colloids
- •Organic degradation products
- •Gas generation
- •Conventional R&D
- •Engineered barriers
- •Corrosion
- •Buffer and backfill materials
- •Container fabrication
- •Natural barriers
- •Geochemistry and groundwater flow
- •Gas transport and two-phase flow
- •Biosphere
- •Radionuclide concentration and dispersion in the biosphere
- •Climate change
- •Landscape change
- •Underground rock laboratories
- •URLs in sediments
- •Nature’s laboratories: studies of the natural environment
- •General
- •Corrosion
- •Cement
- •Clay materials
- •Degradation of organic materials
- •Glass corrosion
- •Radionuclide migration
- •Model and database development
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Building confidence in the safe disposal of radioactive waste
- •Growing nuclear concerns
- •Communication systems in waste management programmes
- •The Swiss programme
- •The Japanese programme
- •Examples of communication styles in other countries
- •Finland
- •Sweden
- •France
- •United Kingdom
- •Comparisons between communication styles in Finland, France, Sweden and the United Kingdom
- •Lessons for the future
- •What is the way forward?
- •Acknowledgements
- •References
- •A look to the future
- •Introduction
- •Current trends in repository programmes
- •Priorities for future efforts
- •Waste characterisation
- •Operational safety
- •Emplacement technologies
- •Knowledge management
- •Alternative designs and optimisation processes
- •Materials technology
- •Novel construction/immobilisation materials: the example of low pH cement
- •Future SA code development
- •Implications for environmental protection: disposal of other wastes
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Index
38 |
D.F. McGinnes |
To this end, Nagra, the Swiss implementer, undertook an analysis of the origin of all half-life data for all radionuclides deemed to be of relevance (i.e., all nuclides with half lives >60 days and important daughters, e.g., 90Y, 137mBa, etc.) in their repository design, to ensure that any potential for their change in the future was understood. This was not meant to assess minor changes as the accuracy of half-life measurement improves, but rather to ensure that, for the safety-relevant nuclides, the values used were based on data that had been verified by repeated measurements in more than one laboratory, using different methodologies. This study (McGinnes, 2006) indicated that, unlike 79Se, all other relevant radionuclide half-lives had been confirmed by multiple analyses.
2.7.6.3. Uncertainties
Uncertainties are an integral part of any scientific work and, in the case of radionuclide inventories, these can be assessed by performing cross-comparisons between inventories produced in different countries and analysing the differences via peer review. Other methods involve cross-comparison of codes (e.g., Andersson, 1999; McGinnes, 2002) to identify precisely where differences lie. This is especially useful in allocating uncertainty factors to simple codes based on their comparison with more accurate codes (see, e.g., Kolbe, 2004).
Finally, the best method is to compare the results of the calculations with actual measurements (validation), but this involves significant expense and, for some difficult- to-measure radionuclides, does not always lead to clear results (see comments in McGinnes, 2002).
However, to put matters in perspective, it should be noted that the conservatism inherent in the processes leading to the calculation of repository safety, combined with the vast improvements made in calculation and measurement techniques in the area of inventory and waste analysis, leads to the conclusion that, with due diligence, inventory uncertainties should not play a significant role in assessing repository performance over long time periods.
2.8. Conclusions
To conclude, it is considered to be essential that any person involved in inventory activities is aware of the impact of the many assumptions that have to be made to create an inventory that is suitably sized for safety assessments. This chapter has attempted to highlight some of the pitfalls that can be encountered during inventory development and has proposed a technique to allow the relative importance of waste types to be assessed and as a result, allow resources for more detailed waste characterisation activities to be better applied.
2.9. Acknowledgements
The author would like to acknowledge former colleagues at Nagra (to name but a few, H. Maxeiner, J. Schneider, P. Zuidema) who have assisted over the years to ensure suitable inventories were developed. Finally, a special mention for F. Bruno (formerly at ENEA, Italy) for a great time in Italy and recognition for the joint development of the relative importance of waste types for assessing.
Waste sources and classification |
39 |
2.10. References
AEA (2003). RANKERN (Version 14D) – A point Kernel software program for gamma ray solutions, developed by AEAT, Harwell, UK.
Alder, J.C., McGinnes, D.M. (1994). Model radioactive waste inventory for Swiss waste disposal. Nagra Technical Report NTB 93-21, Nagra, Wettingen, Switzerland.
Andersson, J. (1999). Data and data uncertainties – compilation of data and data uncertainties for radionuclide transport calculations. SKB Technical Report, TR-99-09, SKB, Stockholm, Sweden.
Carlsson, J. (1999). Management of lowand intermediate level waste in Sweden. In: Karpow Snere, M., Snihs, J.O. (Eds.) Seminar on Waste Treatment and Disposal, Oskarshamn, Sweden, November 9-14, 1998, Stra˚levernRapport 1999:4, Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority, 1999, pp 44–46.
Csullog, G.W. et al. (2001). The IAEA Net-enabled waste management database, Proceedings of the Waste Management 01 Conference, Tucson, Arizona, USA.
ENEA (2000). Inventario Nazionale dei Rifiuti Radioattivi – 2000, ENEA, Rome, Italy.
Grove (1998). Microshield Version 5, Grove Engineering, 1700 Rockville Pike, Suite 525, Rockville, Maryland, USA.
IAEA (1994). Classification of Radioactive Waste, Safety Series No. 111-G-1.1. Safety Guides, IAEA, Vienna, Austria.
IAEA (2005). Nuclear Power Reactors in the World, April 2005 Edition, Reference data Series No.2, IAEA, Vienna, Austria.
JAEA (2007) FEPC & JAEA. The Second Progress Report (TRU-2) on the R&D for TRU (ILW) waste disposal in Japan. JAEA Report (in press). JAEA, Tokai, Japan.
JNC (2000). H12: Project to establish the scientific and technical basis for HLW disposal in Japan, JAEA, Tokai, Japan.
Johnson, L.H., King, F. (2003). Canister options for the direct disposal of spent fuel, Nagra Technical Report, NTB 02-11, Nagra, Wettingen, Switzerland.
Kolbe, E. (2004). Comparison of ORIGEN2.1 with selected computer codes, Nagra Technical Report, NTB 04-04, Nagra, Wettingen, Switzerland.
LANL (2005). MCNP- A General Monte Carlo N-Particle Transport Code (Version 5), Radiation Safety Information Computational Center (RSICC), P.O. Box 2008, Oak Ridge, USA.
McGinnes, D.F. (2002). Model radioactive waste inventory for reprocessing waste and spent fuel, Nagra Technical Report NTB 01-01, Nagra, Wettingen, Switzerland.
McGinnes, D.F. (2006). Author’s unpublished data.
Nagra (1985). Beha¨lter aus Stahlguss fu¨r die Endlagerung verglaster hochradioaktiver Abfa¨lle, Nagra Technical Report, NTB 84-31, Nagra, Wettingen, Switzerland.
Nagra (1993). Endlager fu¨r kurzlebige schwachund mittelaktive Abfa¨lle (Endlager SMA); Beurteilung der Langzeitsicherheit des Endlagers SMA am Standort Wellenberg (Gemende Wolfenschiessen, NW), Nagra Technical Report, NTB 93-26, Nagra, Wettingen, Switzerland.
Nagra (1994). Kristallin-I, Safety Assessment, Nagra Technical Report, NTB 93-22, Nagra, Wettingen, Switzerland.
NEA (2003). Decommissioning Nuclear Power Plants. Policies, Strategies and Costs. OECD/NEA, Paris, France.
Nirex (2002). The 2001 United Kingdom Radioactive Waste Inventory, Nirex Reports N/041 to N/048, Nirex, Harwell, UK.
Raiko, H., Salo, J.-P. (1999). Design report of the disposal canister for twelve fuel assemblies, Posiva Report 99-18, Posiva, Rauma, Finland.
Riggar, P., Johansson, C. (2001). Project safe, low and intermediate level waste in SFR-1, Reference Waste Inventory, SKB Technical Report TR-01-03, SKB, Stockholm, Sweden.
RWMAC (1997). The radioactive waste management advisory committee’s report on: Categorisation of solid radioactive wastes, Radioactive Waste Management Advisory Committee, Defra, London, UK.
Sasaki, N., Koyama, T., Omori, E., Maki, A., Yamaniuchi, T. (1998). Study on the Cause of the Fire and Explosion Incident at Bituminization Demonstration Facility at PNC Tokai Works. Proceedings of the Spectrum ’98 Conference (Denver, Colorado), Vol III USDOE, Washington DC, USA, pp 67–77.
Uranium Information Centre (2006). see http://www.uic.com.au/
40 |
D.F. McGinnes |
USDOE (2001). Summary data on the radioactive waste, spent nuclear fuel, and contaminated media managed by the US Department of Energy. USDOE Office for Environmental Management, USDOE, Washington DC, USA.
Vankerckhoven, P., Mitchel, K. (1998). Current position (1998) in the EU member states and in the Baltic and central European countries. EUR report 18324, EU, Luxembourg.
Vieno, T., Nordman H. (1999). Safety assessment of spent fuel disposal in Hastholmen, Kivetty, Olkiluoto and Romuvaara, Posiva Report 99-07. Posiva, Rauma, Finland.
Von Gunten, A., Trummer, L., Weber, C., Maxeiner, H. (1999). Radiologische Charakterisierung und Konditionierung von Betriebsabfa¨llen aus dem Reaktordruckbeha¨lter, atw, 44, 300–304.
Werme, L. (1998). Design premises for canister for spent nuclear fuel, SKB Technical Report TR-98-08, SKB, Stockholm, Sweden.