8. Глоссарий

Entry

Definition

Equivalent terms

absolute generali­zation

the highest degree of generalization working on the level of notions

absolute abstraction

Cf: relative generalization

Actant

semantic entities representing participants in a situation defined by their abstract semantic function - the function of Agent, Patient, Experiencer, Beneficient, Instrument, etc. (L. Tesniere, A. Greimas)

semantic role

to actualize

to realize, to embody; to make a language element part of evolving speech

adjunct

1. a qualifying word, phase, etc., depend­

a dependent unit

ing on a particular member of a sentence;

2. a secondary word in a junction

(O. Jespersen)

Cf.: subjunct

adnex

a secondary word in a nexus (0. Jespersen)

Agent (as a semantic role)

the person or other being that instigates the happening denoted by the verb, e.g.: Jenny has written me a letter.

allomorph

a concrete manifestation of a morpheme, a variant, an alternative of a morpheme

allo-term

a variant language unit actualized in a concrete speech string

Cf: erne-term

aspective gram­matical meanings

differential grammatical meanings describ­ing the inner character of the verbal process in terms of its beginning, duration, itera­tion, termination, intermination, or its instantaneous, supercompleted, undercom-pleted character, etc.

categorial

aspective

meanings

aspective seman­tics

semantics describing the inner character­istics of the verbal process; it can be expressed lexically or grammatically

Beneficent(as a semantic role)

a person or other being for whose sake an action is performed

binding

syntactical relationship of clauses of different ranks (of an independent and a dependent clause) Cf: linking

bound morpheme

a morpheme that cannot form a word by

itself

Cf: a free morpheme

case

a nounal category showing the relation of the referent to some other referent

cleft sentence

a construction in which a simple sentence is divided into two clauses so as to give prominence to a particular language unit and the information it carries, e.g.: // was the players who/that objected to the delay.

collocation

a habitual association between particular words, such as "to" with "fro", the uses of "to" after "answer" and before "me" in "You'll answer to me!"

comment

something said about (predicated of) the

focus

topic

Cf: topic

common gender nouns

nouns able to actualize either masculine or feminine gender properties of the referent depending on the context

complement

an obligatory dependent language unit Cf: supplement

complementary distribution

relation of formally different morphs having the same function in different environments, e.g.: cows - oxen Cf: contrastive distribution, non-contras-tive distribution

complementive verb

a verb taking an obligatory adjunct, a verb having an obligatory valency

Cf: uncomplementive verbs

componential analysis

an approach which makes use of semantic components. It seeks to deal with sense relations by means of a single set of constructs. Lexical items are analyzed in terms of semantic features or sense compo­nents, treated as binary opposites distin­guished by

compositional analysis

conceptual domain

information centred around some concept

concord

the relationship between units in such matters as number, person, and gender. The two related units should both be singular or both plural, feminine or masculine, etc.

agreement

Cf: government

consecutive phrase

a phrase based on logical domination of one member over another

Cf: cumulative phrase

contextualization

establishing the context in which language units are typically used, i.e. finding out who, when, where, why and what for one can be expected to use this or that language unit with a certain meaning (J.R. Firth)

continuous morpheme

an uninterrupted string of phonemes building up a morpheme

uninterrupted morpheme

Cf: discontinuous morpheme

continuum

a set of language units interpolated between any two polar units made up by units having intermediary features; a space of transition between poles

contrastive distribution

relations of different morphs in the identical environment

Cf: non-contrastive distribution, comple­mentary distribution

coordinative phrase

a phrase based on coordination and consisting of elements of equal rank

Cf: cumulative phrase

corteme

a unit of language having no semantic content, e.g. phoneme (M. Blokh)

Cf: signeme

Counteragent

entity (or force) against which the Agent acts

covert morpheme

an implicit morpheme, i.e. a morpheme having no explicit representation in the actual expression

zero mor­pheme

Cf: overt morpheme

cumulative phrase

a phrase whose elements are not equal in their rank

Cf: coordinative phrase, consecutive phrase

deep structure

the formal syntactical construction represented by dummy symbols replaced by lexical entities in ways determined by their feature content

Cf: surface structure

derivational

referring to the formation of language units

derivational suffix

a suffix which may be followed by other suffixes (W.N. Francis)

Cf: inflectional suffix

"descriptive" plural

the plural form of the noun having a pronounced stylistic colouring due to the usage of the uncountable noun in the function of the countable noun, e.g.: sands, snows

diachronic

dealing with study of language changes over a period of time

historical

Cf: synchronic

dichotomy

division into two parts or categories

dicteme

an elementary topical unit fulfilling the functions of nomination, predication, topicalization, stylization (M. Blokh)

~ supra-sentential construction

differential feature

distinctive feature of a categorial form

distinguishing feature

discontinuous morpheme

a morpheme built up of an interrupted string of phonemes, e.g.: be ... -en

Cf: continuous morpheme

distribution

the contextual environment of a language unit

Cf: contrastive, non-contrastive, comple­mentary distribution

dominational phrase

a phrase based on the relationship of the modifier and the modified

subordinative phrase

Cf: equipotent phrase

elementary unit

a unit indivisible into minor constituents

minimal element, smallest unit

eme-term

a generalized invariant language unit Cf: allo-term

epistemic modality

modality expressing the degree of commitment the speaker has to the truth of the proposition expressed in the utterance. It ranges from uncertainty through possibility to probability

equipollent opposition

an opposition whose members have different positive categorial features

Cf: privative opposition, gradual opposition

equipotent phrase

a phrase based on logical succession of elements having an equal rank

Cf: dominational phrase

etymon

the earliest traceable form from which a later word is derived

Experiencer

the person enduring a certain state, e.g.: He wants to eat.

extensional semantics

an approach which is concerned with establishing the character of the corre­spondence between a sign-function and a given state of the world Cf: intensional semantics

finite verb

a verb explicitly expressing predication on the basis of the categories of tense and mood, verb of complete predication

predicate verb

Cf: non-finite form of the verb

formative phrase

a phrase consisting both of notional and functional verbs

Cf.: notional phrase, functional phrase

function

special purpose of a unit, its ability to serve a certain aim; sometimes equivalent to some abstract syntactic meaning

functional part of speech

a part of speech having a partial nomina­tive value

form word

Cf.: notional part of speech

Generative Grammar

a grammar which precisely specifies the membership of the sets of all the grammat­ical sentences in the language in question and therefore excludes all the ungrammati-cal sentences. It takes the form of a set of rules that specify the structure, interpret

genitive case

a term in grammar marking possession and analogous relations in the case system of Latin and other inflected languages

possessive case

Goal

entity towards which an action is direct­ed, e.g.: He gives a book to Jean.

Addressee, Dative

government

a kind of concord in which one term controls or selects the form of the partner

Cf: concord

gradual opposi­tion

an opposition whose members are characterized by the expression of a certain degree of one and the same categorial feature

Cf: privative opposition, equipollent opposition

half-gerund

a form having mixed, participial and gerundial, features

participial gerund

heterogeneous

differing in kind; having dissimilar or incongruous elements

dissimilar

Cf: homogeneous

hierarchy

organization of elements based on ranking

homogeneous

of the same kind or nature; essentially alike; uniform in structure; composed of parts all of the same kind

similar

Cf: heterogeneous

icon

a highly motivated sign, visually (or acoustically) resembling what it represents (a photograph, hologram, onomatopoeia) (Ch.S. Peirce)

Cf: symbol, index, sign

identification

the act of singling out a referent Cf: classification

individualiza­tion

idiom

an expression unique to a language, esp. one whose sense is not predictable from the meaning and arrangement of its elements, e.g.: "kick the bucket" (= to die)

Cf: free word combination

illocutionary act

an utterance which has a certain conven­tional force, e.g.: informing, ordering, warning, undertaking, etc.

Cf: locutionary act, perlocutionary act

immanent category

a category expressing the inherent features of a part of speech (M. Blokh) Cf: reflective category

inherent category

immediate constituents

constituent elements immediately entering into any meaningful combination

implication implicit, implied (deriv.)

information which is not given explicit verbal expression to, but which is entailed by some other elements of the context

Cf: explication, verbalization

inchoative meaning

a kind of aspective meaning consisting in the indication of an action which is shown as just starting, e.g.: Let's get going.

Ingressive

index

a partially motivated sign (to the extent that there is a connection, usually of causality, between sign and referent, e.g.: smoke is indexical of fire) (Ch.S. Peirce) Cf.: symbol, icon, sign

indicative verbal forms

verbal forms expressing the categorial meanings of the indicative mood and describing the denoted action in terms of absolutive time

mood forms of reality

Cf: subjunctive forms, oblique verb forms

infix

an affix inserted into the root (sta-«-d: stood)

Cf: prefix, suffix, root

inflectional suffix

a suffix which must always come at the end of the morpheme groups to which they belong

grammatical

Cf: derivational suffix

suffix

instrument (as a semantic role)

the physical stimulus of the action, e.g.: to strike with a knife

intensional semantics

a branch of semantic studies concerned with the analysis of the content (i.e. meaning) of a given expression, but not the relations of signs to the objects of the real world

Cf: extensional semantics

intralinguistic

concerning relations of units within a particular language system

internal

Cf: extralinguistic

irrealis

semantic category the differential mean­ing of which is denotation of imagined, projected or otherwise unreal situations

Cf: "realis"

junction

relationship of two elements which is so close that they may be considered to be one composite name for what might in many cases just as well have been called by a single name (0. Jespersen)

Cf: nexus

lexeme

word taken as an invariant unity of form and meaning

lexical paradigm of nomination

an interclass system of four-stage deriva­tive part of speech correlative constitu­ents, reflecting regular part of speech correlations in the notional part of the lexicon (M. Blokh)

derivational paradigm of nomination

limitive verb

a verb expressing a potential limit in the development of the denoted action

terminative verb

Cf: non-limitive verb

linking

syntactic relationship of clauses of the same rank (either both independent or both dependent)

Cf: binding

locutionary act

uttering of a certain sentence with a certain sense and reference (J. Austin)

Cf: illocutionary act, perlocutionary act

loose sentence-groups

sentences in which no element can be considered as the leading (or main) element (E. Kruisinga)

~ coordinate sentence

mental paradigm

systemic principles of analysis

modality

the way in which proposition is modified in terms of reality/non-reality (possibility, necessity, desire, obligation, belief, hope, hypothesis, etc.). It shows the relation of the nominative content to reality (M. Blokh)

Cf: predication

mononomination

naming a single referent Cf: polynomination

morph

a repeated segment of phonemic string; a combination of phonemes that has a meaning which cannot be subdivided into smaller meaningful units (W.N. Francis)

Cf: allomorph, morpheme

morpheme

the smallest meaningful part of a word expressing a generalized, significative meaning. It's a group of allomorphs that are semantically similar and in comple­mentary distribution

Cf: morph, allomorph

morphophoneme

1. a phoneme in semasiologo-morpholog-

ical function (Z. Harris);

narrative

the telling of stories

narration

neutralization

a type of oppositional reduction by which a neutralized language unit becomes fully functionally identified with its counter-member

Cf: transposition

nexus

a predicative (and semi-predicative) relation between words (O. Jespersen)

Cf.: junction

nomination

naming a referent Cf: predication

non-contrastive distribution

relations of different morphs having the same function in the identical environ­ments, e.g.: learned- learnt

Cf: contrastive distribution, complementa­ry distribution

non-limitive verb

verb not expressing a potential limit in the development of the denoted action

unlimitive verb, non-terminative verb, durative, cursive

Cf: limitive verbs

non-personal verb

a verb which doesn't agree with a subject, the doer of the denoted action

impersonal verb

Cf: personal verbs

notional part of speech

a part of speech of full nominative value Cf: functional part of speech

nucleus (of a

a root or a combination of roots includ­ing possible non-roots, attributive to respective roots

morphological

Cf: root, stem, affix

construction)

Object (as a semantic role)

entity (thing) which is relocated or changed; whose existence is at the focus of attention, e.g.: to break the window. Sometimes 0. is identified with patient, i.e. entity which is the victim of some action: to kill a fox.

objectivity

the ability of a verb to take an object of any kind

Cf: transitivity

objective verb

a verb taking an object of any kind (direct, indirect, prepositional)

Cf: transitive verbs

oblique verbal form

the form of a verb which expresses the categorial meanings of irreality

non-real mood form of a verb, Subjunctive

Cf: indicative verbal form

opposition

correlation of categorial forms having a certain function

oppositional reduction

the process of curtailing an opposition of categorial forms

oppositional substitution

Cf: neutralization, transposition

overt morpheme

an explicit morpheme, not zeroed Cf: covert morpheme

paradigmatic

referring to language system on the basis of invariant-variant relations, connected on a non-linear basis

systemic

Cf: syntagmatic

part of speech

a class of words distinguished by a particular set of lexico-grammatical features

Participant (as a semantic role)

a person acting together with the Agent, but who is somehow "overshadowed" by him: You have me. to ride with. Cf: Agent

particle

a functional part of speech which actual­izes limiting and specifying meanings

personal verb

a verb which agrees with a subject denoting the doer of the action

Cf: non-personal verb, impersonal verb

phoneme

the smallest constituent of a word having no meaning but fulfilling the function of differentiating morphemes

phatic commun­ion

language used more for the purpose of establishing an atmosphere of maintaining social contact than for exchanging informa­tion or ideas: in speech, informal comments on weather, or an enquiry about health at the beginning of a conversation (B. Malinowski

phraseme

a combination of two or more words as a representative of the corresponding language level

phrase, word-group, word-grouping, syntactic syntagma

Pluralia Tantum nouns

nouns having only the plural form Cf: Singularia Tantum nouns

absolute plural nouns

pragmatic factor

a factor relevant for the actualization of a message in a concrete communicative situation

predicate calculus

the logical calculus in which the expressions include predicate letters, variables and quantifiers, names and operation letters, as well as expressions for truth functions and the propositional variables of the preposi­tional calculus

predication

the act of referring the nominative content of the sentence to reality (M. Blokh) Cf: nomination

prefix

a term in word-formation for an affix added at the beginning of a word or base to form a new word, e.g.: re-write Cf: suffix, root

prepared sen­tence/clause

a clause introduced by connectives Cf: unprepared sentence/clause

presupposition

a proposition whose truth is necessary for either the truth or the falsity of another statement. It stays intact under negation and modal operators, e.g.: John is divorced (presupposition: John was married) - John is not divorced (presupposition: John is

primary predica­tion

predication expressed in a sentence which has as its predicate a finite form of the verb Cf: secondary predication, potential predication

complete pre­dication, ex­plicit predica­tion, actual predication

privative opposi­tion

an opposition based on the principle of

presence/absence in its counter-members

of one and the same feature

Cf: gradual opposition, equipollent

opposition

proposeme

a language unit expressing a thought

~ sentence

proposition

the content of a declarative sentence, that which is proposed, or stated, denied, questioned, etc., capable of truth and falsity

judgment

propositional acts

acts of referring and predicating (J.R. Searle)

to qualify

1. to ascribe qualities to smth., to charac­

to describe to modify

terize;

2. to limit

ranking clause

a nonembedded clause (M.A.K. Halliday) Cf.: embedded clause

reference

1. mentioning someone or something,

either directly or indirectly;

2. (logic, ling.) the activity or condition

through which one term or concept is

related to another or to objects in the world

Cf.: sense (2)

referent

the denoted object of the world Cf: sign

reflective category

a category expressing categorial meanings which are not inherent in the referent in question, e.g.: person and number in the verb system (M. Blokh)

secondary category, non-inherent category

Cf: immanent category

relative generali­zation

relative degree of abstraction, working on the level of broad or general concepts

abstraction

Cf: absolute generalization

relevant

pertinent, applicable, bearing on the issue in question

"repetition" plural

a specific plural form of the noun which acquires a pronounced stylistic marking due to the repetition of the noun in the singular, e.g.: He smoked cigarette after cigarette.

replacive mor­pheme

a morpheme built up on the basis of root (or vowel) interchange; usually a root vowel that replaces another in a categori-al form, e.g.: smg - sang Cf: additive morpheme

representamen

the type to which a coding convention assigns a certain content by means of certain interpretants; type-expressions conventionally correlated to a type-content by a given culture, irrespective of the fact that they can be used in order to communicate effe

Cf: interpretant, sign

Result (as a semantic role)

entity that emerges due to some action, e.g.: She has written a letter.

Factitive (Ch. Fillmore)

retrospective coordination

establishing relation between the given action and some prior action or moment

 phase

taxis, order

root

the element left after all affixes have been removed from a complex word, carrying the basic lexical meaning of the word

Cf: nucleus, stem, affix

secondary predication

predication expressed by potentially predicative complexes with non-finite forms of the verb and verbal nouns

potential pre­dication, in­complete/par­tial predica­tion, implicit predication, semi-predica­tion

Cf: primary predication

segmental morpheme

a morpheme made up by phonemes Cf: suprasegmental morpheme

semantic feature

(in componential analysis) an elementary component of meaning. Their aggrega­tion makes up the integral meaning of a language unit

semantics

the study of meaning of words and sentences, their denotations, connota­tions, implications, and ambiguities

semes

meanings differentiated by the opposition of signemic units

semantic feature

sememe

a generalized element of meaning

lexico-seman-tic variant

semi-notional words

words which have a complete nominative meaning but fulfil syntactic functions typical of functional words.

Cf: notional words, functional words

semi-predicative construction

a construction made up by a non-finite form of the verb and a substantive element denoting the subject or object of the action expressed by the non-finite form of the verb

potentially

Cf: fully predicative construction

predicative

construction,

propositional

construction

semi-proper nouns

proper nouns with mixed, identifying and typifying, meanings

semi-names

sense

1. = meaning;

2. paradigmatic (intensional) meaning.

Cf: reference;

3. actual meaning of a language unit;

4. a submeaning, e.g: various senses of the

word "mark"

sign

a material designator of a meaning, a con­crete token element used in the concrete process of communication and reference.

Cf.: symbol, icon, index, representamen, interpretant

sineme

a unit of language having a semantic con­tent, e.g.: morpheme, word (M. Blokh)

Cf: corteme

significative

suggestive of a meaning

signifie

meaning

Singularia Tantum nouns

nouns having only the singular form Cf.: Pluralia Tantum nouns

absolute sin­gular nouns

Source (as a semantic role)

smth. which gives rise/origin to another entity, cause of some action, e.g.: He. sells books.

stem

a term in grammar and word-formation for a root plus the element that fits it into the flow of speech

Cf: root, nucleus, affix

structure

1. the set of relations between

the elements of a system;

2. construction

stylization

the function of a dicteme which consists in referring it to a particular style (M. Blokh)

subjunct

a tertiary word in a junction (O. Jespersen)

Cf: adjunct (2)

substance

1. the essence or material part;

2. the essence which underlies all phenom­

ena;

3. that which is real;

4. that which has qualities and character­

istics

substantive

a noun

suffix

an affix added at the end of a word, base, or root to form a new word or form of the word

Cf: prefix, infix, root

supplement

a non-obligatory adjunct Cf: complement

optional adjunct

suppletivity

the formation of word-forms from different roots

Cf: affixation, inner inflection, outer inflection

suprasegmental unit

an element accompanying the realization of utterances and expressing different modifica-tional meanings, such as accent, intonation contours, pauses, patterns of word-order

Cf.: segmental unit/morpheme

surface structure

the resultant syntactic construction derived through transformations of the deep structure

Cf.: deep structure

symbol

1. smth. that represents smth. else, smth.

concrete or material used to represent

smth., abstract or non-material;

2. the most arbitrary kind of sign: the

word in language, the rose representing

love in literature, etc. (Ch.S. Peirce)

Cf: icon, index, sign

synchronic

referring to a certain stage in the develop­ment of a phenomenon; coexistent

Cf: diachronic

syntagma (syntactic)

a word-group consisting of two or more notional elements

word combi­nation, phrase

syntagmatic

connected on a linear basis Cf: paradigmatic

system

a structured set of elements connected by a common function

topic

something about which something is said (predicated)

Cf: comment

topicalization

1. process whereby knowledge of certain things/individuals is "foregrounded", i.e. taken from long-term memory stores to some working memory, in which the established information may be combined with the incoming new information (T.A. van Dijk); 2. the fo

thematization

transformation

transition from one syntactic pattern to another syntactic pattern with the preservation of its notional parts

Transformational-Generative Grammar

a type of generative grammar, first intro­duced by N. Chomsky ("Three Models for the Description of Language", 1956). It holds that some rules are transformational, i.e. they change one structure into another according to such prescribed conventions as mo

transitivity

the ability of a verb to take a direct object

Cf: objectivity

transposition

the use of a language element in the contextual conditions typical of its • oppositional counter-member by which it fulfils two functions simultaneously

Cf: neutralization

unit

a constituent of a system

element

utterance acts

uttering words and sentences (J.R. Searle)

valency

the ability of a language unit to take an adjunct, potential combinability of a language unit

verbal

a non-finite form of the verb Cf: finite verb

verbid

Glossary of Pragmalinguistic Terms

Entry

Definition

alerter

an opening element preceding the actual request (i.e., term of address, attention getter, endearment term, offensive term, etc.)

appealer

an element used by a speaker when he wishes to appeal to the hearer's benevolent understanding. It functions to elicit a hearer's signal, and occurs in a syntactically final posi­tion, and may signal turn-availability (e.g.: Will you? O'key? Aren't we?)

beneficiary

the one who benefits from the performing of the act re­quired by the speaker

cajoler

conventionalized speech item whose semantic content is of little transparent relevance to the discourse meaning. It commonly doesn't enter into syntactical structures, but is interspersed to increase, establish, or restore harmony be­tween interlocutors,

coerciveness

imperative force

cognitive load

(= locution, proposition) the literal content of a sentence, the situation denoted

commitment indicator

an upgrader serving to indicate the speaker's heightened degree of commitment (involvement) vis-a-vis the state of affairs referred to in the proposition (e.g.: I'm sure, cer­tainly, etc.)

communicative competence

an ability to employ speech acts to achieve the desired com­municative end

communicative risk

a potential breakdown in communication, a failure to achieve the desired communicative result

conventionality thesis

thesis formulated by J.Searle, according to which certain forms tend to become conventionally established as the standard idiomatic forms for indirect speech acts

cultural transposi­tion

transfer of native speech categories to the target language

directness

the degree to which the speaker's illocutionary intent is apparent from the locution. In this sense it is a pragmalin­guistic category which leads itself to psycholinguistic vali­dation. It is related, but by no means coexistive, with po­liteness

downtoner

a sententional or propositional modifier which is used by a speaker in order to modulate the impact his speech act is likely to have on the hearer (e.g.: possibly, perhaps)

hedge

an internal modifier used by the speaker to avoid a precise propositional specification and, consequently, the poten­tial provocation of such precision (e.g.: somehow, kind (sort) of)

illocutionary point

the purpose of communication, or of a particular speech act; the speaker's intent = illocutionary intent

indirectness

an intended exploitation of a gap between the speaker's meaning and the utterance's meaning: the hearer identifies an utterance as a hint. As a result of this belief he assigns the speaker some hidden intention

intensifier

an upgrader used to intensify elements of the proposition (e.g.: a terrible/frightful man )

interactional style

a method (or a complex of methods) employed by the speaker to achieve a particular illocutionary point and char­acterizing him this or that way

interactive con­straints

fundamental concerns influencing the choice of strategies in a message. They are:

1. appropriateness: "be polite";

2. efficiency (effectiveness): "be clear, direct";

3. concern for minimizing imposition;

4. concern for avoiding negative evaluation by the hearer;

5. likelihood of use (of a strategy within a specific request

situation)

internal modifiers

elements within the utterance proper, the presence of which is not essential for the utterance to be potentially under­stood as, for example, a request. They serve as indicating devices used to signal pragmatic force, and as socio-prag-matic devices meant

interpersonal end

the purpose of maintaining relationship between the speak­er and the hearer

locution

aspect of an utterance which consists in its cognitive load

locution derivable

(= obligation statement) the illocutionary intent which is directly derivable from the semantics of the locution

locutionary force

the act of speaking, the form and content of the utterance

negative politeness

(=deference politeness, concern for minimizing imposition) the degree to which an utterance avoids imposing on the hearer's freedom of actions; means of protecting the hear­er's negative face

performative

a verb that characterizes the relationship between the speak­er and the addressee explicating the illocutionary force of the utterance

performative structure

a structure that involves the speaker's attempts to get the hearer to perform some action by virtue of the hearer hav­ing recognized that such an attempt is being made

perlocutionary force

the effect of the utterance on the addressee

politeness marker

an internal modifier added to a request to bid for cooper­ative behaviour (e.g.: you know, please, etc.)

politeness theory

pragmatic theory formulated by G. Leech, according to which the speaker may be willing to save the hearer's face by means of a polite and tactful behaviour in a context of a face-threatening request

pragmatic error/ deficit

failure to convey or comprehend the intended illocution­ary force or politeness value

pragmatic opacity

(= indirectness) lack of transparency specifically and in­tentionally employed by the speaker to convey a meaning which differs, in some way, from the utterance meaning

pragmatic transfer

transfer of native procedures and lingual means of speech act performance to interlanguage communication

Principle of cooperation

"make your conversational contribution such as required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged" (Grice)

- of manner

"be clear, brief, avoid obscurity" (Grice)

-of quality

"speak only the truth" (Grice)

- of relevance

"speak to the point" (Grice)

- of politeness

"save the addressee's face, be polite" (Grice)

- of effective means

(= rationality principle) "Given a desired end, one is to choose that action which most effectively, and at least cost, attains that end" (Kosher)

propositional content

the cognitive content of an utterance (= locution); one of the components, alongside of the pragmatic component, of the semantics of an utterance

sentence meaning

standard interpretation assigned by a particular lingual structure only

sociopragmatics

sociological interface of pragmatics that studies the ways in which pragmatic performance is subjected to specific social conditions

sociopragmatic factor

a factor determining the specific character of communica­tion: age, sex, relative status of the interlocutors, situational constraints, degree of familiarity, etc.

sociopragmatic failure

the error learners commit when they assess the relevant situational factors as the basis of their native socioprag­matic norms

speech act

a form of interpersonal communication which is distin­guished by a specific communicative intention of the speak­er and its own linguistic markers

subjectivizers

elements by which the speaker explicitly expresses his sub­jective opinion vis-a-vis the state of affairs referred to in the proposition, thus lowering the assertiveness of the re­quest (e.g.: I'm afraid, I wonder, I think)

supportive move

a unit external to the request which modifies its impact by either aggravating or mitigating its force

understater

an internal modifier by means of which the speaker under-represents the state of affairs denoted in the proposition (a bit, a little)

upgrader

an element which functions to increase the impact of a re­quest: intensifier, commitment indicator, expletive, time intensifier, lexical uptoner, determination marker, repeti­tion of request, orthographical (supersegmental) empha­sis, emphatic addition

utterance meaning

meaning rendered in a specific context by having the hear­er recognize the intention of the speaker

want statement

a statement which contains the expression of the speaker's volition, desire