2. Main parts of the sentence, their peculiarities

Being one of the central parts of a two-member sentence, the subject in both contrasted languages has identical syntactic function. One of the peculiarities of an English sentence is a formal subject (it, there) deprived of any lexical meaning and needed just to form the sentence structurally. It started snowing. Почався сніг. In Ukrainian, sentences without a subject are quite common. But almost all Ukrainian non-subject sentences correspond with English ones with a subject. They say… Кажуть…It’s getting dark. Сутеніє. One might think… Можна було б подумати… There is no table. Some ways of expressing the subject are found only in English. These are:

1. By means of indefinite pronouns one, you, they. When one loves one’s art, no service seems too hard. Коли хтось любить мистецтво, ніяка послуга не здається занадто важкою. They say, I look like my father. Кажуть, що я схожий на (свого) батька.

2. By means of impersonal or introductory pronoun it: It was just very dark. Просто було дуже темно. It was fun to think that she could be crazy. Весело було думати, що вона може бути божевільною./ Думка проте, що вона може бути божевільною, бавила мене.

3. By means of formal there, which is used to introduce the rhematic subject: There’s nothing wrong with him. З ним все гаразд.

4. By means of infinitive secondary predication for-phrase: For me to come is impossible. Я не можу прийти. It is absurd for you to doubt yourself. Це безглуздо сумніватися в самому собі.

5. By means of subjective with the infinitive or participle construction (so-called complex Subject): The fire is certain to produce panic in the morning. Пожежа певно викличе паніку зранку. They seem to have quite forgotten him already. Здається, що вони вже забули про нього. He was seen arguing with the ship’s doctor.Бачили, як він сварився з корабельним лікарем.

6. By the gerundial construction: Tom’s coming here was blessing. Приїзд Тома сюди був благом.

The semantic functions of the Subject

These functions are common in both languages:

1. That of the agent of the action in relation to the Predicate: Doctor sighed faintly. They went upstairs to pack.

2. That of the patient of the action expressed by the Predicate: The expense of the election was borne by the party. His thoughts were broken by the Newell driving in.

3. The experiencer of the action. She didn’t like his wife. He had first heard about the pride at high school.

4. The recipient of an action: The year before Maria had won the tennis championship.

5. The instrument in relation to the predicate: The engine faded out.

6. The eventual function of the subject. All that had happened was his own fault.

The main features of the predicate are common in both languages. Allomorphism is pertained only to some forms of expressing it in English (continuous and perfect forms of the finite verb or gerund). Martin was thinking of the resource Carry would add. Deciding is acting.

As to its structure, the predicate may be in both languages:

1. simple verbal (expressed by synthetic or analytical form of the finite verb); They walked along the deck of the ship. His car is always breaking down.

2. Simple nominal (which is very widely used in Ukrainian and much rarer in English): Splendid game, cricket! Блискуча гра, крикет! My idea obsolete! Моя думка застаріла! The simple nominal predicate is expressed by a noun, or an adjective, or a verbal. It does not contain a link verb, as it shows the incompatibility of the idea expressed by the subject and that expressed by the predicate; thus in the meaning of the simple nominal predicate there is an implied negation. He a gentleman! Ну який же він джентльмен! You a bother! Never. Щоб ви й докучали! Ніколи!Fred, a priest! Щоб Фред був священиком! Rondal, jealous! Рондал – ревнує! (Бути цього не може!) Nick, dishonest! Нік – нечесний! Не може бути! Such an old lady to come so far! Щоб така літня жінка прийшла здалеку! The simple nominal predicate in Ukrainian may also be expressed by the impersonal verb forms in –но, -то, as well as by different nominals which form in English part of the compound nominal predicate. Cf. Yanosh is / was killed. He has been fired. Яноша вбито. Його звільнено з посади.

3. The third group of simple predicate constitutes the so-called idiomatic predicate by verb set / common expressions, denoting one action (to have a look/ a smoke/ a talk; to give a look/ a laugh/ a cry; to take a look; to make a move/ a remark; to pay a visit). Of that entire Johnny took no notice. Clare gave him a sweet look. На все це Джони не звертав уваги. Клер звела на нього ніжний погляд.

The Compound Predicate and ways of expressing it

1. The Compound Verbal Modal Predicate which comprises a modal verb or its equivalent and an infinitive or gerund. The modal verb expresses the meaning of predicate as possible, impossible, desirable, obligatory, necessary, certain, uncertain, planned, etc: You ought to be working now. Тобі слід працювати зараз. We’d better go home. Ми краще підемо додому. That might need a bit of thinking. Над цим мабуть треба поміркувати. I couldn’t help smiling. Я не зміг утриматися від посмішки. You must forget it. Ти повинен забути про це.

2. Common in both languages is also the Compound Verbal Predicate which comprises the verbs denoting desire, hope, intention, determination, attempt: I want to go home. I’m going to be at the concert. I was trying to learn German. Я намагався вчити німецьку мову. I’ve tried to do the best I can for her. I didn’t want to speak, not to anyone. Я не хотів розмовляти, ні з ким. He hopes to see her soon. Він сподівається побачитися з нею.

3. The Compound Verbal Aspective Predicate consisting of verbs denoting beginning, duration or cessation of an action / state plus the imperfective infinitive or gerund. E.g.: Her legs began to tire. Ноги в неї почали зморюватися. I shall continue to endure my fate. Я продовжу випробувати свою долю. He continued blinking his eyes and trying to smile. When she was a child she used to sit on the lowest step nursing a rag doll. During her small leisure hours she would sit by the window or walk in the fields. The band had ceased playing. Note! Only in English, however, there is so-called Compound Double Predicate, formed by the subjective (притаманний підмету) with the infinitive construction: He seemed to have completely lost interest in everything. Здавалось, що він зовсім втратив інтерес до всього. The space mission is unlikely to finish this week. Малоймовірно, щоб космічне завдання/експедиція завершилась на цьому тижні. Philip Bossiney was known to be a young man without fortune.

4. The Compound Nominal Predicate consists in both languages of linking verbs which can may have a vague lexical meaning (to be, to get, to become) or preserve its lexical meaning (to remain, to seem, to feel), which have direct lexical equivalents in Ukrainian. The nominal part of the predicate may be expressed by the gerund and by predicate constructions, so-called complement missing in Ukrainian: Deciding is acting. The water is (seems, feels, looks, is getting, is becoming) hot. Здається, що вода на (дотик/виглядає/стає гаряча. That is for me to decide. Це мені вирішувати. It was his reading which impressed me. Саме його читання справило на мене враження.

• Predicate of becoming where the linking verb has meaning of becoming: Bob, who was growing deaf, couldn’t hear her. The night has become more and more raw. The snow turned into cold rain.

• The Compound Nominal Predicate of Remaining. He remained silent for a moment then spoke again. The winter continued damp and wet.

• The nominal predicate of seeming and appearing: They all seemed very confident he would be back for Christmas.

Agreement of the predicate with the subject

In both languages the subject always agrees with the predicate in number and person. This rule concerns all present tenses and also the verb to be in the past simple. This rule remains true as in:

• All link verbs irrespective of the number of the predicative noun: Our only guide was the Polar star/ stars. Organised people are boring. Arriving at work early Monday morning makes you feel tired and irritable.

• The predicate of emphatic constructions with the formal subject it: It was my friends who suddenly arrived. It’s they who are responsible for the delay. It is actually easier to be organized than disorganized.

• The verb is in singular if the subject is expressed by:

• a) an infinitive phrase: To know everything is to know nothing. To be loved and to be wanted is always good.

• b) a prepositional phrase: After the meeting is the time to speak.

• c) A clause introduced by a conjunction or relative pronouns: Where you found him does not concern me. How you got there is beyond my understanding. Whether you find him or not does not concern me. But relative pronouns what /who may take both singular and plural verbs: What I want to do is to save us. What were once precious manuscripts were scattered over the floor. What I say and what I think are/is my own affair.

• d) A numerical expressions including addition, subtraction, division: Three and five is eight. Ten minus four is six. Fifteen divided by three is five. However multiplication admits of two variants: Twice two is/are four.

• e) The structure many a + noun: Many a man has done it. (Ні одна людина зробила подібне).

• f) With there/here structure followed by subjects of different number, the predicate agrees with the subject that stands first: There was a cup and some glasses in the cupboard. There were some glasses and a cup in the cupboard. Here was a man, was experience and culture.

• g) fractions and other expressions referring to amounts: Three quarters of a ton is too much.

• But plural verbs are normally used with quantifying expressions (like majority of, group of , a lot of, a couple of, half of and number of (unlike their Ukrainian equivalents). The number of French students at the course are falling. The majority of the teachers are writing scientific papers. The majority of criminals are non-violent. A lot of social problems are caused by unemployment. Half of his students don’t understand a word he says. A number of people have tried to find the treasure but have all failed. A group of us are going to take a boat through the French canals. Some of these people are friends of mine and the rest are people from the office. A couple of my friends are going to open a travel agency.