Issues to discuss:

1. Lexical and grammatical meaning, classification, categories and functions of pronouns.

2. Classification, Meaning and categories of numbers.

3. Peculiarities of prepositions.

1. Lexical and grammatical meaning, classification, categories and functions of pronouns

Pronoun is a word like he, it, their, our, which is used instead of a more precise noun or noun phrase (Henry, the letter, the team’s, the family). John took the book and opened it. He called Sue and invited her to lunch. Pronouns substitute for nouns. Generally, a pronoun refers to a previously stated noun, called an antecedent. The movers dropped the desk while carrying it up the stairs. They immediately filled out the damage report, which required John’s signature.

Structural classification. Pronouns in the contrasted languages can be of different structure:

• Simple: she, it, we, these, all, ones, who, він, вона, їхній, свій, хто, etc.

• Compound (they comprise more than one stem): yourself, someone, everything, anywhere, nobody, будь-який, той самий, хто-небудь, etc.

• Composite (phrase-like): either …or, one another, each other, один одного, чи той…чи інший, etc.

In both Ukrainian and English grammars there are the following subclasses of pronouns:

1. Personal (I, you, he, she, it, we, they),

2. Possessive (my, your, his, her, our, their),

3. Reflexive (myself, yourself, ourselves, themselves),

4. Demonstrative (this, these, that, those, one),

5. Relative (which, who, when, where, that),

6. Interrogative (which, who, etc.),

7. Indefinite (other, someone, anybody, etc.)

The category of number pertains to the demonstrative (this – these, that - those), reflexive (myself - ourselves) and indefinite (other – others, one - ones) pronouns. But in Ukrainian, demonstrative (той – та – ті, цей – ця – ці, такий – така - такі), possessive (мій – моя – моє - мої), interrogative and relative (який - які, котрий – котра – котрі, чий - чия) pronouns as well as negative pronouns formed from them (ніякий, нічий) have categories of number and gender.

Unlike Ukrainian pronouns which have six cases (as nouns), some of English pronouns (reflexive, indefinite) have Common and Possessive case, and the rest (personal, relative and interrogative) have subject and object forms.

Peculiarities of the subclasses of pronouns

1) Personal pronouns in both contrasted languages are identical. But the role of personal pronouns in English is more important than in Ukrainian. As soon as they indicate the verb categories of person and number, they can not be omitted in a sentence. He says. She comes up and asks. Каже. Підходить і питає. The form of the pronoun depends on the gender and number of the antecedent and whether the pronoun is a subject or an object. The archer was distracted by the noisy people in the crowd, so she delayed the shot until the referee had quieted them.

Personal pronouns are used when:

1. It is not necessary to repeat more exact noun phrases. Tim’s broken his leg. He’ll be in hospital for a few days. Tell Sarah I miss her.

2. When something or someone has already been mentioned. ‘Have you been to London?’ ‘Yes, it was very crowded.’ My father is too fat – he weighs over 15 stones (stone = 6.34 кг).

3. To refer directly to people/things, that are present or involved into the situation. Where shall we meet, Sally? I do the washing, he does the cooking, we share the washing-up. Send us a card so we’ll know where you are.

   • Personal pronouns of two cases/forms

Subject (they are used mainly as subjects before verbs)	Object (they are used mainly as objects after verbs and prepositions)
I, he, she, we, they, who I like dogs. I need help. We sent her some flowers. This is Mr. Perkins, who works with me. I don’t know what to do. They’ll go there later.	me, him, her, us, them, whom Dogs don’t like me. It’s me that needs help. Can you help her? She sent us a postcard. She’s taller than him. This is Mr. Perkins, with whom I am working at the moment. The ball hit her in the face.

Note! In modern English object pronouns are used rather than subject pronouns after the verb be:

‘Who is it?’ ‘It’s me.’ There was John. ‘Who said that?’ ‘It was him.’ The invitation was for Tracy and me. (People usually mention themselves last in phrases like you and I, my dad and I.)

General use of personal pronouns:

We, you, one can refer to people in general: We must love one another or die. You have to drive on the other side of the road on the continent. If you want adventure, romance and excitement, don’t live in Low Barton. One should never take advice. One has to think of the practical side of things. One never knows what to say in such situations.

They can mean ‘the people around’ or ‘the authorities’: They say she’s pregnant again. The say he’s very clever. Why don’t they pay nurses enough?

We use it as a meaningless/’empty’ subject (impersonal) with expressions that refer to time, weather, temperature, distance, or the current situation (in general statements). It’s nine o’clock. What time is it? It’s Monday again. It rained for three days. It’s thirty degrees. It’s ten miles to the nearest petrol station. It’s too far to walk. It’s terrible – everybody’s got colds, and the central heating isn’t working. I like it here. Can we stay here a bit longer. Wasn’t it lovely there?

A singular pronoun refers back to a singular noun group. However, you can use plural pronoun to refer back to. If anybody comes, tell them I’m not in. His family was waiting in the next room, but they had not been informed yet.

2) Possessive pronouns show ownership: a) The girls are with their brother. A tree drops its leaves in autumn. This is our room. This room is ours. A happy dog wags its tail. Note that no apostrophes are used here.

In English they refer to the possessor and not to the thing possessed: my – mine; your – yours, his/her/its – his/hers; our – ours, your – yours; their – theirs. The first member in each pair performs the function of attribute (before a noun: It’s my picture.) in a sentence, and the second member fulfils the function of the predicative complement (This picture is mine). The first form often called a pronoun-adjective, with a noun; use the second form if the pronoun stands alone in place of a noun. Matt, your solution is more idealistic than mine. (Your, a pronoun-adjective, modifies the noun solution, mine stands alone but also implies reference to the same antecedent, solution.)This is their car. That car is theirs too. You’ve got my pen. You’re using mine. Where’s yours?

b) Possessive pronouns are used with clothes and parts of the body. She changed her shoes. He injured his back. Note that in most cases (before nouns that express parts of the body, clothes or family relations) usage of the possessive pronouns is compulsory. In such word groups the possessive pronouns are similar to articles. Compare: He put his hand into his pocket. Take off your coat. Ann told her mother about the accident. David spent his holidays in the Caribbean. Він поклав руку в кишеню. Зніміть пальто. Ганна розповіла матері про аварію. Давід провів свою відпустку на Карибських островах. In Ukrainian the possessive pronouns are not often used in such cases. If you need to clarify the possession, you may use a possessive pronoun свій.

c) To add emphasis, own can be placed after my, your, his, one’s, etc: my own purse, his own idea, a room of one’s own, I’m on my own = I’m alone. We can’t solve this problem all on our own.

d) The expression of mine, etc. means ‘one of mine’.