3) Reflexive pronouns

English reflexive pronouns have the category of number and they may be distinguished among ‘person’ and ‘non-person’: himself – itself, whereas in Ukrainian, there is just one reflexive pronoun себе, which is used as an object only. It doesn’t have forms of nominative case, gender and number. He defended himself; She defended herself; Він захищав себе; Вона захищала себе.

• Singular: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself;

• Plural: ourselves, yourselves, themselves.

In Ukrainian the pronoun себе is often replaced by affix -ся: He amused himself. Він розважався.

Use:

a) The common use of reflexive pronouns is to talk about actions where the subject and object are the same person. She stretched herself out on the sofa. The men formed themselves into a line. He should give himself more time. John taught himself swimming. Ann poured herself a drink.

b) With imperatives: Here’s the money, go and buy yourself a drink.

c) Most transitive verbs take a reflexive pronoun. I blamed myself for not paying attention. He introduced himself to me. I cut myself. It is not always easy to amuse oneself on holiday.

Note! Actions that people usually do to themselves DO NOT take reflexive pronoun. I usually shave before breakfast. She washed very quickly and rushed downstairs.

d) As an object of a preposition: I was thoroughly ashamed of myself. They are making fools of themselves. Tell me about yourself. He spoke to himself. Look after yourself. Did she pay for herself. Take care of yourselves. I’m annoyed with myself. She addressed the envelope to herself.

e) To emphasize the person or thing you are referring to: The town itself was so small that it didn’t have a bank. I myself have never read the book. The King himself gave her the medal.

f) To emphasize that somebody did something without any help: She had printed the card herself. I’ll take it down the police station myself. Did you put those shelves all by yourself? This refrigerator defrosts itself. Ann opened the door herself.

g) When somebody is alone: He went off to sit by himself. I was there for about 6 months by myself. Tim went to London himself.

Note the change in meaning when we replace the reflexive pronoun by the reciprocal pronoun (взаємний) each other: Tom and Ann blamed themselves for the accident. But: Tom and Ann blamed each other. (Tom blamed Ann and Ann blamed Tom.)

4) Demonstrative pronouns

a) You use Demonstrative pronouns this that, these, those when you are pointing to physical objects or identifying people. This and these refer to things near you, that and those refer to things farther away: This is a list of rules. ‘I brought you these,’ Adam held out a bag of grapes. That looks interesting. Those are mine. Who’s this? These are my children, Susan and Paul. Was that Patrick on the phone?

b) As determiners in front of nouns: This book was present from my mother. When did you buy that flat?

c) To refer back to the things which have already been mentioned: That was an interesting word you used just now. More money is being pumped into the education system, and we assume this will continue. ‘Let’s go to the cinema.’ – ‘That’s a good idea’. These are not easy questions to answer. This is an important point: you must never see her again.

d) This and these are used to refer forward to something that is going to be mentioned: This is what I want to say: it wasn’t my idea. These are the topics we will be looking at next week: How the accident happened, whether it could have been avoided, and who was to blame.

e) Unlike Ukrainian, there are two more demonstrative pronouns in English one/ones, which are used instead of a noun that has already been mentioned or is known from the context, usually when you are adding information or contrasting two things of the same kind. My car is blue one. Don’t you have one with buttons instead of a zip? Are the new curtains longer than the old ones? I like this one better. We’ll have those ones, thank you. It is possible to use ‘which one/ones’ in questions: Which one do you prefer? Which ones were damaged?

5) Indefinite pronouns without specific antecedents, serve as general subjects or objects in the sentences. When using an indefinite pronoun as a subject, remember that some are singular and some are plural and choose the verb that agrees with the indefinite pronoun you are using. Someone is sure to discover that the dates in the chat are inaccurate. Several are available on the table at the back of the lecture hall. Both archaeologists agree that their earlier finds were misleading (pronoun-adjective both modifies archaeologists.)

In English indefinite pronouns are:

	Singular			Plural
Everyone	Someone	Anyone	No one	All, some
Everything	Something	Anything	Nothing	Both
Everybody	Somebody	Anybody	Nobody	Few
Each	Either	Any	None	Many
	Neither	One		Several

In Ukrainian the indefinite pronouns are formed from interrogative pronouns and particles: будь- -небудь, -сь, де-, аби- та ін.: хтось, щось, дехто, дещо, будь-хто, будь-що, хто-небудь, будь-який, абиякий, абищо, якийсь, чийсь та ін. Isomopphic feature of these pronouns in both contrasted languages is distinguishing of person – non-person.

Use:

1. When you want to refer to people or thing without saying exactly who or what they are: I was there for over an hour before anybody came. Jane said nothing for a moment. It had to be someone with a car.

2. When an indefinite pronoun is a subject of a sentence, it takes a singular verb even it refers to more than one person or thing. Everyone knows it. Everything was fine. Is anybody here? But note if you refer back to indefinite pronouns, you use plural pronouns and a plural verb: Ask anyone. They will tell you. Has everyone eaten as much as they want? You can’t tell somebody why they’ve failed.

3. Indefinite pronouns may be used in possessive case: She was given a room in someone’s studio. That was nobody’s business but mine.

4. In English the meaning and usage of the pronouns somebody – anybody, something – anything, etc. depends on their syntactic position: they express the same meaning in different types of sentences. Some- is used 1) In affirmative sentences: Somebody shouted. I want to introduce you to someone. 2) In questions when you expect the answer ‘yes’: Would you like something to drink? Can you get someone to do it? Any- is used: 1) in negatives and questions: Does anybody agree with me? Won’t anyone help him? You still haven't told me anything. I haven't given anyone their presents yet. 2) As the subject or object in a statement: Anyone knows that you need a licence.

5. You must not use another negative in the same clause, in this case you should use any. There was nothing you could do. Nobody left, nobody went away. It hasn’t made any difference. He will never do any work for me again.

6. Anywhere/everywhere/nowhere/somewhere are used to talk about places in general: I thought I had seen you somewhere. No one can find Howard or Barbara anywhere. There was nowhere to hide. It is possible to use ‘else’ after indefinite pronouns to refer to people, places and things other than those that have been mentioned: Everyone else is downstairs. I don’t like it here, let’s go somewhere else.

7. You use all with plural count and uncount nouns to talk about every person or thing in the group you are talking about. All children should complete the primary school. He soon lost all hope of becoming a rock star. Note that you use all of, most of and none of with an object pronoun. All of us were sleeping. I had seen most of them before. None of them came to the party. None of those farmers had ever driven a tractor.

6) Relative pronouns are used to describe and substitute the preceding noun in defining and non-defining relative clauses (they are the same as interrogative pronouns). The man who told me this refused to give me his name. The book is about a girl who falls in love with her boss. My neighbour, who is very pessimistic, says there will be no apples this year. If we omit them it is not clear what man or girl we are talking about. Their forms are as follows:

	Subject	Object	Possessive
For persons	Who/ that	Whom / who	Whose
For things	Which/ that	Which / that	Whose / of which

Unlike English, in Ukrainian distinguishing among ‘person – thing’ is not essential because the most common relative pronouns may relate both to people and things (який, що, котрий): That is the girl whose brother works in our University. Та дівчина, брат якої працює в нашому університеті.

1. Who/what is normally used as a subject of defining relative clauses: The man who robbed you has been arrested. The girls who serve in the shop are the owner’s daughters. Only those who had booked in advance were allowed in. Would anyone who saw the accident please get in touch with the police? This is the picture which/that caused such a sensation. But that is a possible alternative after all, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody and those: Everyone who/that knew him liked him. Nobody that/who watched the match will ever forget it.

2. As object of a verb. The object form is whom (for persons), but this is considered very formal. In spoken English we normally use who or which (for things) or that (that being more usual than who), and it is still more common to omit the object pronoun altogether: The man whom/who/that I saw told me to come back today or The man I saw…The girls whom/who/that he employs are always complaining about their pay. The girls he employs…The car which/that I hired broke down or The car I hired…

3. With a preposition. In formal English the preposition is placed before the relative pronoun, which must then be put into the form of whom. In informal speech, however, it is more usual to move the preposition to the end of the clause. The man from whom I bought it told me to oil it. = The man who/that I bought it from…= The man I bought it from…The ladder on which I was standing began to slip = The ladder which/that I was standing on…The ladder I was standing on…

4. Whose is the only possible form for possessive: People whose rents have been raised can appeal. The film is about a spy whose wife betrays him. A house whose walls were made of glass = a house with glass walls.

7) Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. Who won the Nobel Prize this year?

To whom should I send the application? Which musical had the longest Broadway run, Evita or Cats?

Classification, meaning and categories of numbers

Classification of numbers

In both contrasted languages numbers are divided into cardinal (one, fourteen, ninety, один, чотирнадцять, дев’яносто, etc.) and ordinal which are formed in English from the cardinals by suffix –th, but in Ukrainian by ending –ий, -а, -е: the first, fourteenth, ninetieth; перший, чотирнадцятий, дев’яностий. Notice the irregular spelling of fifth, eighth, ninth and twelfth. In Ukrainian cardinals include groups of indefinite numbers (кілька, декілька, чимало, стільки, кільканадцять, кількадесят) and collective numbers (двоє, обоє, четверо) and so-called ‘caressing’ numbers (двійко, двойко, трійко, обойко) which are not available in English, where notions of indefinite number are expressed by quantitative adjectives and adverbs (many, much, few, little, a little, etc.).

Structural classification:

• Simple: один, десять, сорок; one, eleven, twelve.

• Compound: п’ятнадцять, сімнадцять, thirteen, nineteen, fifty;

• Composite: двадцять вісім, тридцять шість; thirty eight, two hundred and sixty seven. (Note that in English, when forming numbers over one hundred, a conjunction and is used: 713 - seven hundred and thirteen; 5,102 – five thousand one hundred and two).

Fractions and decimals

• When writing in words or reading simple fractions other than ½ (a half) or ¾ (a quarter),

we use a combination of cardinal and ordinal numbers: 1/7 one seventh; 3/8 three eighths; 2/5 two fifths; ¾ hour – three quarters of an hour; ½ mile – half a mile.

• More complex fractions may be expressed by the word over: 317/509 three hundred and seventeen over five hundred and nine.

• We write and say decimals like this: 0.789 nought point seven eight nine; 5.8 five point eight.

• With fractions and decimals below 1, we normally use of a + singular noun: three quarters of a ton; 0.456 nought point four five six of a metre. However, decimals below 1 can also be followed directly by a plural noun: 0.124 cm – nought point one two four metres.

• Fractions and decimals over 1 are normally followed by a plural noun: one and a half hours; 1.4 millimetres, 2 ¼ miles – two and a quarter miles.