
- •1. The subject of theoretical grammar. Its relations to practical grammar.
- •2. General characteristics of the grammatical structure of language.
- •It is demanded that all the students be present at the meeting.
- •3. Morphology and syntax as two main parts of grammar.
- •4.Language as a system and structure. Language levels. The notion of isomorphism.
- •The morphological level has two level units:
- •5. Dichtonomy(противопоставление 2х объектов)[даи’котеми] of language and speech
- •6. Systemic relations in language. Syntagmatic relations.
- •7. Systemic relations in language. Paradigmatic relations
- •8. Linguistic units and their peculiarities.
- •9.The morpheme as an elementary meaningful unit. Classification of morphemes.
- •10.The word as the smallest naming unit and the main unit of morphology.
- •11.Lexical and grammatical aspects of the word. Types of grammatical meaning.
- •12.Grammatical (morphological) categories. The notion of oppositions as the basis of grammatical categories.
- •13. Oppositional analysis.Types of oppositions. Reduction of grammatical oppositions.
- •14.Analytic and synthetic forms of English words. Analytic forms in the structure of English.
- •16.Parts of speech. Different approaches to the classification of parts of speech.
- •17. Criteria for establishing parts of speech: semantic, formal, functional. Notional and functional parts of speech.
- •18. The noun as part of speech. Morphological, semantic and syntactic properties of the noun. Grammatically relevant classes of nouns.
- •19. The category of number. Formal and functional features of the number category. The problem of number in different subclasses of nouns.
- •20. The category of case.The evolution of theoretical interpretations of the category of case in English.
- •21.The problem of gender in English. Personal pronouns as gender indicators of nouns.Sex distinctions in the system of the noun.
- •22. Noun determiners. The article.The problem of the zero article.
- •23. The verb as a part of speech. Grammatically relevant subclasses of verbs (transitive/intransitive, terminative/nonterminative).
- •Vaddr.-adv. I won’t keep you long
- •26. Finite and non-finite forms of the verb. The category of finitude.
- •27. The verbal categories of person and number.
- •28. The category of tense in English. Tense oppositions. Absolute and relative tense meanings of English tense-forms.
- •Present Past
- •Future I Future II
- •29. The problem of perfect.
- •31. The category of voice. Voice opposition. The number of voices in English.
- •32. The category of mood the problem of mood opposition. Mood and modality.
- •33. Function words in Modern English.
- •34. Syntax as a part of grammar. Kinds of syntactic theories.
- •35. Transformational-Generative Grammar.
- •36.Modern approaches to the language study: textlinguistics, pragmatics, discourse analysis.
- •37. Basic syntactic notions: syntactic units, syntactic relations, syntactic connections.
- •38. Coordination. The notion of parataxis.
- •39. Subordination. The notion of hypotaxis
- •40. General characteristic of the word-group.
- •41.Nominal word combination. Noun-phrases with pre-posed adjuncts
- •World peace – peace all over the world
- •Table lamp – lamp for tables
- •42. Nominal word combination. Noun-phrases with post-posed adjuncts.
- •43. Verbal word combinations. Types of verbal complements.
- •44. Predication. Primary and secondary predication. Predicative word combinations.
- •45. The sentence. Structural and semantic characteristics of the sentence. Different approaches to the study of the sentence.
- •Complication Contamination
- •Replacement – the use of the words that have a generalized meaning: one, do, etc, I’d like to take this one.
- •Ajoinment - the use of specifying words, most often particles: He did it – Only he did it.
- •46. Sentence – proposition – utterance – speech act.
- •47. The simple sentence. Principal, secondary and detached parts of the sentence.
- •48. The hierarchical structure of the sentence. Immediate Constituents Analysis.
- •Immediate constituents of the sentence. Ic analysis.
- •49. The paradigm of a simple sentence. Kernel and derived sentences. Syntactic processes.
- •The utterance. Informative structure of the utterance.
- •The utterance. Communicative and pragmatic types of utterance.
- •52. The complex sentence as a polypredicative construction. Types of subordinative clauses.
- •53. Text as a syntactic unit. Coherence, Cohesion, deixis as the main features of the text.
- •54. Textual connecting devices. Reiteration, collocation, endophoric relations.
- •56. Pragmatic approaches to the study language units.
- •57. Basic notions of pragmatic linguistics.
- •It’s hot excuse
- •58. Speech act theory.
- •59. Classification of speech acts.
- •Representatives make words fit the world s believes X
- •Expressives make words fit the world s feels X
- •Commissives make the world fit words s intends X
- •60. Indirect speech acts.
- •61. The study of language in use. Discourse analysis.
- •62. Maxims of conversation.
- •Make your contribution as informative as required
- •Be relevant
- •Be orderly
- •64. Implicatures and indirectness. The Politeness Principle.
- •It is only on the basis of assuming the relevance of b’s response that we can understand it as an answer to a’s question.
11.Lexical and grammatical aspects of the word. Types of grammatical meaning.
Proceeding from the differences in linguistic signs we claim that word-signs be subdivided into two principal groups: lexical words and grammatical words.
Lexical words are the linguistic signs which possess denotative ability. They are denotators of extralingual objects and phenomena, objective and subjective: a window, a country, to judge, etc. Their function consists in nominating or designating the denoted objects and phenomena. The nominative character of denotative words, which correlate with notions and have full denotative content, helps to distinguish
nominative words from non-nominative ones. Lexical words in contrast to “grammatical words’’are nominative units which function as lingual nominators of denoted referents.
The term “notional”, however acceptable it might be, is not probably exact because, in fact, all words, this way or another, correlate with notions. But the correlative notions may be different, and the ways of correlation may differ too. The term seems somewhat misleading. Grammar resorts to it but interprets it conventionally as a designation of denotative units only.
Grammatical words are also linguistic signs but they possess significative ability. They are significators of general conceptual notions.
They do not designate or nominate them as the word “significate” itself does.
They may or may not have reference to objective reality.If they have any, grammatical words are said to possess certain referential and reflective ability. The significative character of the main stock of grammatical words is obvious. This results from their function of signification, i.e. the representation of general conceptual notions (categories) not in the way of nominating but by signifying or marking them grammatically. Hence, it is the way of lingual representation and the nature of conceptual referents, significative generic notions or categories, that predetermine the specific lingual function of signification. Nomination and signification are correlative and distinctive they lie at the basis of differentiating lexical words from grammatical ones.
Since grammatical words are devoid of nominative power they can be characteristically qualified as “function-words”, i. e. words attributed with particular functional design such as to signify conceptual categories, to form up language units in their function and relationships or to provide orientation in speech situations. The functionality of grammatical words makes it necessary to regard them together with other grammatical devices of linguistic means of expression. Both types of words are bilateral entities having their content and expression sides.
The notion of ‘grammatical meaning’.
The word combines in its semantic structure two meanings – lexical and grammatical. Lexical meaning is the individual meaning of the word (e.g. table). Grammatical meaning is the meaning of the whole class or a subclass. For example, the class of nouns has the grammatical meaning of thingness. If we take a noun (table) we may say that it possesses its individual lexical meaning (it corresponds to a definite piece of furniture) and the grammatical meaning of thingness (this is the meaning of the whole class). Besides, the noun ‘table’ has the grammatical meaning of a subclass – countableness. Any verb combines its individual lexical meaning with the grammatical meaning of verbiality – the ability to denote actions or states. An adjective combines its individual lexical meaning with the grammatical meaning of the whole class of adjectives – qualitativeness – the ability to denote qualities. Adverbs possess the grammatical meaning of adverbiality – the ability to denote quality of qualities.
There are some classes of words that are devoid of any lexical meaning and possess the grammatical meaning only. This can be explained by the fact that they have no referents in the objective reality. All function words belong to this group – articles, particles, prepositions, etc.
Types of grammatical meaning.
The grammatical meaning may be explicit and implicit. The implicit grammatical meaning is not expressed formally (e.g. the word table does not contain any hints in its form as to it being inanimate). The explicit grammatical meaning is always marked morphologically – it has its marker. In the word cats the grammatical meaning of plurality is shown in the form of the noun; cat’s – here the grammatical meaning of possessiveness is shown by the form ‘s; is asked – shows the explicit grammatical meaning of passiveness.
The implicit grammatical meaning may be of two types – general and dependent. The general grammatical meaning is the meaning of the whole word-class, of a part of speech (e.g. nouns – the general grammatical meaning of thingness). The dependent grammatical meaning is the meaning of a subclass within the same part of speech. For instance, any verb possesses the dependent grammatical meaning of transitivity/intransitivity, terminativeness/non-terminativeness, stativeness/non-stativeness; nouns have the dependent grammatical meaning of contableness/uncountableness and animateness/inanimateness. The most important thing about the dependent grammatical meaning is that it influences the realization of grammatical categories restricting them to a subclass. Thus the dependent grammatical meaning of countableness/uncountableness influences the realization of the grammatical category of number as the number category is realized only within the subclass of countable nouns, the grammatical meaning of animateness/inanimateness influences the realization of the grammatical category of case, teminativeness/non-terminativeness - the category of tense, transitivity/intransitivity – the category of voice.
GRAMMATICAL MEANING
EXPLICIT
IMPLICIT
GENERAL DEPENDENT