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Text 4.

History and Development of Petroleum

Petroleum has been known throughout historical time. It was used in mortar, for coating walls and boat hulls, and as a fire weapon in defensive warfare. Native Americans used it in magic and medicine and in making paints. Pioneers bought it from the Native Americans for medicinal use and called it Seneca oil and Genesee oil. In Europe it was scooped from streams or holes in the ground, and in the early 19th century small quantities were made from shale. In 1815 several streets in Prague were lighted with petroleum lamps.

Petroleum seeping out of underground reservoirs has been collected and used for light throughout recorded history. In the 4th century A.D. the Chinese drilled for oil and natural gas, but in the 1850s, oil was still being recovered by skimming it off the tops of ponds. As whale oil became less abundant, producers looked for new ways to extract oil. Edwin Drake dug the first modern oil well in Titusville, Pa, hitting oil at 21.2 m, touching off an oil rush in the area. In 1861 the first oil refinery was set up.

The modern petroleum industry began in 1859, when the American oil pioneer E. L. Drake drilled a producing well on Oil Creek in Pennsylvania at a place that later became Titusville. Many wells were drilled in the region. Kerosene was the chief finished product, and kerosene lamps soon replaced whale oil lamps and candles in general use. Little use other than as lamp fuel was made of petroleum until the development of the gasoline engine and its application to automobiles, trucks, tractors, and airplanes. Today the world is heavily dependent on petroleum for motive power, lubrication, fuel, dyes, drugs, and many synthetics. The widespread use of petroleum has created serious environmental problems. The great quantities that are burned as fuels generate most of the air pollution in industrialized countries, and oil spilled from tankers and offshore wells has polluted oceans and coastlines.

Задание 1. Найдите в тексте ответы на следующие вопросы:

How was petroleum used throughout historical time? Who dug the first modern oil well? When did the modern petroleum industry begin? Kerosene was the chief finished product, was not it? Has the widespread use of petroleum created serious environmental problems?

Задание 2. Составьте аннотацию текста.

Text 5.

Oil production.

Russia ranks third in the world in oil production, after Saudi Arabia and the United States. Estimates place proven and potential oil reserves at 8 to 11 billion tons. Russia's oil production peaked in 1987, then began a decline that continued through 1995. In the latter year, the yield was 741 million barrels, 13 million barrels less than the previous year. Output for the first quarter of 1996 was 182 million barrels.

Wasteful Soviet oil exploration and extraction techniques depleted wells, which often fell far below their potential capacity. Soviet technology was not capable of exploring and extracting as deeply and efficiently as Western technology. These handicaps have been instrumental in Russia's plummeting oil production during the last two decades. In 1994 the number of oil wells drilled was only one-quarter the number drilled in 1983. About two-thirds of Russia's oil comes from Siberia, mostly from huge fields in the northwest part of the region. The main European oil and gas fields are located in the Volga-Ural region, the North Caucasus, and the far north of the Republic of Komi.

Russian oil companies are vertically integrated units that control the entire production process from exploration to transmission. The largest company is Lukoil, which, according to some measurements, is the largest oil company in the world. The dominance of a few large companies

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has made all stages of petroleum exploitation and sale extremely inefficient. National and local government policies have discouraged individual retailers from establishing independent gasoline storage facilities and stations; therefore, retail gasoline likely will continue to be in very short supply (only 8,900 stations were operating in Russia in 1995). Until January 1995, government policy applied quotas to oil exports, and until July 1996 tariffs were applied to oil exports. Both policies, resulting from the gap between controlled domestic prices and world market prices, aimed at ensuring a sufficient supply of oil to meet domestic demand; both were lifted as the gap narrowed.

The search for new oil deposits has been a primary force in Russia's foreign policy toward states to the south. Russia has staked its claim to the Caspian oil reserves that Western companies are exploring in conjunction with Azerbaijani, Turkmenistani, and Kazakstani state companies. The presence of Western interests and the strong role being played by Iran and Turkey, Russia's traditional regional rivals, have complicated this policy, which aims to achieve maximum benefit from Russia's position on the shore of the north Caspian. Also a source of international controversy is Russia's insistence that Caspian oil flow northward through Russian pipelines rather than westward via new lines built through Georgia and Turkey.

Задание 1. Прокомментируйте следующие тезисы, используя разговорные формулы:

The statement is right (wrong): it should be pointed; it should be noted; according to the text; as a matter of fact; broadly speaking; as far as I know; to my mind; in my opinion.

1.1.Soviet technology was not capable of exploring and extracting as deeply and efficiently as Western technology.

1.2.Russian oil companies are not vertically integrated units.

1.3.The dominance of a few large companies has made all stages of petroleum exploitation and sale extremely inefficient.

1.4.The search for new oil deposits has been a primary force in Russia's foreign policy toward states to the north.

Задание 2. Закончите предложение, с которого можно начать аннотацию текста:

The purpose of this text is to…

Text 6.

Natural gas production.

Russia is also one of the world's largest natural gas producers. Its proven reserves have been estimated at 49 billion cubic meters, or roughly 35 percent of the world's total. Natural gas has also been one of the most successful parts of the Russian economy. In the early 1980s, it replaced oil as the Soviet "growth fuel," offering cheaper extraction and transportation. Although output has dropped in the 1990s, the decline has not been as severe as that for other energy sources or the rest of the economy. Natural gas production peaked in 1991 at 727 million cubic meters, then dropped throughout the early 1990s. But 1995 production, 596 million cubic meters, was an increase from the previous year. After European gas fields in the Volga-Ural region dominated the industry through the 1970s, production shifted to giant fields in Siberia. The Urengoy and Yamburg fields in the West Siberia region are among the most productive; the former is the largest field in the world. Soviet plans called for rapid development of new reserves in the Yamal Peninsula in the Arctic Ocean north of Urengoy, but environmental problems and infrastructure costs slowed development. Hasty construction and poor maintenance have caused chronic breakdowns and accidents in the long pipelines of Russia's natural gas delivery system.

The State Natural Gas Company (Gazprom) has a virtual monopoly over Russia's gas production and transmission. A vertically organized enterprise, the company has been reorganized into a joint-stock company, in which 40 percent of the shares remain under state

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control. Company employees hold another 15 percent, managers of the company hold 10 percent, and the remaining 35 percent were sold at public auction. Gazprom controls a network of regional production associations.

Задание 1. Расскажите, что нового вы узнали из текста, используя следующие разговорные формулы:

I’d like to say some words about; it’s important to say that; it should be pointed; as is known; the text is about; the text deals with; the content of the text; it should be noted that; according to the text; the subject of the text is; as a matter of fact; I can add; I’d like to say that; broadly speaking; as far as I know; to my mind; in my opinion.

Задание 2. Составьте аннотацию текста.

Text 7.

Petroleum processing and refining.

Petroleum is a mixture of gaseous, liquid, and solid hydrocarbon compounds that occurs in sedimentary rock deposits throughout the world. In the crude state, petroleum has little value but, when refined, it provides liquid fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, aviation fuel), solvents, heating oil, lubricants, and the distillation residuum asphalt, which is used for highway surfaces and roofing materials.

Crude petroleum (oil) is a mixture of compounds with different boiling temperatures that can be separated into a variety of fractions. Since there is a wide variation in the composition of crude petroleum, the proportions in which the different fractions occur vary with origin. Some crude oils have higher proportions of lower-boiling components, while others have higher proportions of residuum (asphaltic components).

Petroleum processing and refining involves a series of steps by which the original crude oil is converted into products with desired qualities in the amounts dictated by the market. In fact, a refinery is essentially a group of manufacturing plants that vary in number with the variety of products in the mix. Refinery processes must be selected and products manufactured to give a balanced operation; that is, crude oil must be converted into products according to the demand for each. For example, the manufacture of products from the lower-boiling portion of petroleum automatically produces a certain amount of higher-boiling components. If the latter cannot be sold as, say, heavy fuel oil, these products will accumulate until refinery storage facilities are full. To prevent such a situation, the refinery must be flexible and able to change operations as needed. This usually means more processes, such as thermal processes to change excess heavy fuel oil into gasoline with coke as the residual product, or vacuum distillation processes to separate heavy oil into lubricating oil stocks and asphalt.

In a petroleum distillation unit, a tower is used for fractionation. The feedstock of crude oil flows through one or more pipes arranged within a large furnace where it is heated to a temperature at which a predetermined portion of the feed changes into vapor. The heated feed is introduced into a fractional distillation tower where the nonvolatiles or liquid portions pass downward to the bottom of the tower and are pumped away, while the vapors pass upward through the tower and are fractionated into gas oils, kerosene, and naphthas.

Задание 1. Определите основную идею текста, используя следующие разговорные формулы: The main idea of the text is; the text deals with; according to the text; the text is about.

Задание 2. Составьте аннотацию текста.

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Text 8.

Processing Natural Gas

Natural gas processing consists of separating all of the various hydrocarbons and fluids from the pure natural gas, to produce what is known as 'pipeline quality' dry natural gas. Major transportation pipelines usually impose restrictions on the make-up of the natural gas that is allowed into the pipeline. That means that before the natural gas can be transported it must be purified. While the ethane, propane, butane, and pentanes must be removed from natural gas, this does not mean that they are all 'waste products'.

In fact, associated hydrocarbons, known as 'natural gas liquids' (NGLs) can be very valuable by-products of natural gas processing. NGLs include ethane, propane, butane, isobutane, and natural gasoline. These NGLs are sold separately and have a variety of different uses; including enhancing oil recovery in oil wells, providing raw materials for oil refineries or petrochemical plants, and as sources of energy.

While some of the needed processing can be accomplished at or near the wellhead (field processing), the complete processing of natural gas takes place at a processing plant, usually located in a natural gas producing region. The extracted natural gas is transported to these processing plants through a network of gathering pipelines, which are small-diameter, low pressure pipes. A complex gathering system can consist of thousands of miles of pipes, interconnecting the processing plant to upwards of 100 wells in the area. In addition to processing done at the wellhead and at centralized processing plants, some final processing is also sometimes accomplished at 'straddle extraction plants'. These plants are located on major pipeline systems. Although the natural gas that arrives at these straddle extraction plants is already of pipeline quality, in certain instances there still exist small quantities of NGLs, which are extracted at the straddle plants.

The actual practice of processing natural gas to pipeline dry gas quality levels can be quite complex, but usually involves four main processes to remove the various impurities: oil and condensate removal; water removal; separation of natural gas liquids; sulfur and carbon dioxide removal.

Задание 1. Передайте содержание текста, используя ответы на следующие вопросы:

What does natural gas processing consist of? What can be very valuable by products of natural gas processing? How is the extracted natural gas transported to processing plant? What are the main processes to remove the various impurities from natural gas?

Задание 2. Закончите предложение, с которого можно начать аннотацию текста:

The purpose of this text is to…

Text 9.

Pipeline transport operation.

Pipeline transport is the transportation of goods through a pipe. Most commonly, liquid and gases are sent, but pneumatic tubes that transport solid capsules using compressed air have also been used. As for gases and liquids, any chemically stable substance can be sent through a pipeline. Therefore sewage, slurry, water, or even beer pipelines exist; but arguably the most important are those transporting oil and natural gas.

When a pipeline is built, the construction project not only covers the civil work to lay the pipeline and build the pump/compressor stations, it also has to cover all the work related to the installation of the field devices that will support remote operation.

Field devices are instrumentation, data gathering units and communication systems. The field Instrumentation includes flow, pressure and temperature gauges/transmitters, and other devices to measure the relevant data required. These instruments are installed along the pipeline on some

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