Inhabitants in the British colonies in America were Negro slaves.

Between 1777 and 1804, all states in the new republic north of Maryland

abolished slavery. However, neither the North nor the South would escape the grave

social, economic, political, and moral problems that are the heritage of slavery. Although

the Civil War (1861-1865) brought an end to slavery in all of the states, discrimination

against blacks would continue. Ironically, some countries that were among the greatest

slave-trading nations for so long, such as Portugal, Spain, and England, have largely

escaped the consequences which almost all Americans have come to accept as rightly

theirs. Americans know that although most of their ancestors came to America by

choice, a great many did not.

The moral questions associated with immigration remain today. The large number

of illegal immigrants pouring over the long Mexican border, for example, has led some

Americans to call for much stronger restrictions. Yet many of these illegal aliens were

living in poverty that is shocking even to the poorest Americans. If you are an American

whose ancestors were poverty-stricken, saying "no" to such people is very difficult. On

the one hand, this immigration provides a safety valve for Mexico. On the other hand,

admittedly, some Americans welcome this source of inexpensive labor. In any case,

stopping the vast flow of illegal immigrants is much easier to demand than to do.

Whether they are wanted or not, they continue to come. Even as the countries of origin

and patterns of immigration change, America's tradition as a nation of immigrants is not

likely to end.

All in all, the heritage of immigrants and immigration has brought enormous

benefits to America. German intellectuals who fled Germany after the failed

revolutions of 1830 and 1848, for example, brought with them a liberal tradition that did

much to change their newly adopted land. Again, a hundred years later, America was

enriched by Jewish immigrants who, seen by many as the "refuse" of the world at the

time, have added their brilliance to American culture, education, and science. Many

other eth ethnic groups have, of course, also added their contributions to the American

Dream, and, by doing so, kept that dream alive.

9

Without a doubt, the American immigration experience, then and now, is

one of the most important factors in American life. All immigrants have contributed to

the development of some "typical" American characteristics. Among these are the

willingness to take risks and to strike out for the unknown with independence and op-

timism. Another is patriotism for the many who feel that they are Americans by choice.

And, equally, there is the self-critical tradition; those who were "fat and happy," as the

phrase goes, never left home.

Religion - "One Nation, Under God"

Looking at religion in the U.S., we are once more faced with a typically American

contradiction. From its very beginnings as a nation, Americans have been extremely

careful to separate church and state, religion and government. The Constitution,

specifically the First Amendment, forbids the government to give special favors to any

religion or to hinder the free practice of any religion. As a result, there are no church

taxes in the United States, nor is there an official state church or a state-supported

religion. There are no legal or official religious holidays. Christmas, for example, is

an important religious holiday for Christians. However, Congress cannot proclaim it, or

any other religious observance, to be an official or legal holiday. To do so would violate

the Constitution. There are no political parties in the United States that have "Christian"

in their names. There is no longer even the assumption that America is, or should be, "a

white, Anglo-Saxon, Protestant" (WASP) nation. Yet surveys show that religion

continues to be quite important to many Americans, especially when compared with

people in other countries.

While 58 percent of Americans feel that religion is "very important" in their own

lives, it is hard to say to what extent religious beliefs affect their daily lives. However, a

study done by Gallup International in 1986 seems to show that attention to religion, at

least, is increasing in the United States. Some 48 percent of those surveyed felt that the

influence of religion on American life was greater than it was five years before (but, of

course, 52 percent did not think it was greater). Also, about half said they were more

interested in "spiritual and religious matters" than they were five years earlier.

Throughout American history, there have been periods of religious revivals which come

and go. If there is in fact a "return to is religion" at present, then it is associated with the

more "fundamentalist" denominations. These church groups are usually more

conservative orthodox in their religious beliefs and practices.

Membership in the less conservative, so-called "mainline" Protestant churches in

the U.S. has actually fallen in the last ten years by about 8 percent. Furthermore, church

attendance by (Roman) Catholics has dropped by about a third during the same period.

By contrast, membership in the fundamentalist Christian churches has gone up by 35

percent, and orthodox Jewish congregations have increased by as much as 100 percent.

The increase in the fundamentalist Christian groups has attracted much public attention.

One reason is that many of these church groups actively publicize their beliefs and try to

influence public life and political processes. Many have their own radio or television

stations which they and their members finance. Yet overall the fundamentalist churches

10

still represent a minority, even if a very active one, of all American church groups

and members.

Since Americans are free to form and follow any religious belief or religion they wish,

there area great many beliefs, denominations, and churches in the United States. The

Roman Catholic Church is by far the single largest, with about million members.

Although there are approximately 78 million Americans who might call themselves

"Protestants," they are distributed among many different, independent churches. There is

no one church or church group that speaks for all Protestants or would be listened to by

all. Each group, rather, supports itself. It employs its own ministers, builds its own

buildings, and follows its own beliefs.

Although religion plays an important role in the personal lives of many

Americans, it has relatively little real influence in political matters. This is especially

true at the national level. Some Americans, for example, were afraid that conservative,

religious supporters of President Reagan would be able to affect national policies in

the 1980s. Today, however, these fears have proved to be largely exaggerated. The

size of America, the tradition of religious toleration, and the separation of church and

state by law, as well as the extreme variety of religious backgrounds of Americans

have prevented religion from gaining much influence on politics. Especially in

comparison with many other western countries, the influence of religion on public and

political institutions in the United States is minimal.

Prosperity and Poverty

Describing Americans and American society by race and ethnic background,

ancestry, and religious affiliation gives fundamental information about the United

States today. Other basic information is concerned with economic factors. What does

the average American earn and how is income distributed? Also important is

where Americans live. How many live in urban and how many in rural areas? What are

the largest cities?

Approximately 100 years ago, the United States overtook Great Britain to

become the richest nation in the world. Since then, whether measured by average

income or by gross national product (GNP), the U.S. has remained among the wealthiest

nations. In 1985, for example, the median family income of all Americans was about

$27,700. In other words, one half of all families earned more than this amount each

year, and one half less. What this means is that, as a whole, the American people are a

very prosperous nation. Nonetheless, Americans are very concerned with that

percentage of their countrymen who fall below what they consider "a decent standard

of living." This is not starvation: it is being poor in relation to the rest of the nation.

Most Americans are troubled by the fact that some social, ethnic, and racial groups

show a disproportionate number of people living below the official poverty level.

The "official poverty level" is set by the federal government and adjusted

from time to time. This is interpreted as the stage at which a decent standard of

living can no longer be expected. In 1985, for example, the official poverty level

for a four-person family was $10,989 per year. This amount refers to earned

11

income only. It should be noted that this poverty figure does not already

include any welfare benefits, housing support, aid to children, food stamps,

Medicaid, or other help from federal and state programs. Nor does it include the

free school breakfast and lunch programs or the surplus food programs which

distribute food free of charge to the poor.

Among the areas with many people below the poverty level is Appalachia,

that mountain region which includes parts of such states as West Virginia, North

Carolina, and Tennessee. Thousands of people there need better housing,

medical treatment, and other services. Much poverty also exists among

minority groups. The average incomes of American Indians, blacks, and

Hispanics continue, as a whole, to be lower than those of whites.

The fact that a much smaller proportion of Americans are poor today than

they were 50, 75, or 100 years ago does not provide much comfort for Americans

concerned with the problem of poverty. Any poverty rate, to them, is unaccept-

able, although there may be broad disagreement on what to do about it. Some

believe the federal government should use its power and money to do

everything it can to eliminate poverty and provide for all those who cannot

provide for themselves. Others believe that public welfare programs are costly

and ineffective, and that they remove incentives for poor people to work, to get

the education, training, and jobs which would allow them to help themselves.

Many observers maintain that a permanent "underclass" is beginning to develop

in the United States that is dependent on welfare from generation to generation.

The question of which measures might be most effective to help the poor achieve

more

independence and prosperity continues to be debated among Americans. Yet,

few Americans today feel that easy answers will be found to these difficult

problems.

Mobility - Moving West

Where Americans live and where they are moving also reveals how America has

changed and is changing. From its very beginnings as a nation, the "population center

of gravity" has been moving westwards. This is the point where the country would

balance if only the weight of the population were considered.

Early settlers left the original British colonies along the East Coast and pushed

westwards in thin lines along the rivers, and then through the mountain passes. The

American frontier - that imaginary line dividing areas with more than two people per

square mile from those with fewer -was at one time just on the other side of the

Appalachian mountains. Then, it was found in the areas that are today known as the

Midwest. Soon it was across the Mississippi. By 1853, the U.S. had acquired the entire

western part of the country, by purchase, conquest, and treaty. As more and more

people entered these territories, new states were created. In 1890, the frontier was

finally and officially declared "closed." In other words, all areas now had an average of

more than two people per square mile. America's "manifest destiny," her mission to

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expand her territory all the way across the continent in order to provide room for

future generations, had been completed.

This frontier experience, the gradual but steady opening and settlement of new

lands to the west, had continued for almost three hundred years. According to the

American historian Frederick Jackson Turner, this experience of first surviving in and

then cultivating the vast, wild land had a deep and lasting influence on the American

character. It strengthened the spirit of independence: the frontiersmen went ahead of

governments, not behind them. It demanded self-reliance and self-confidence. It

encouraged a sense of equality: what individuals could do was more important than

who they or their parents were. It brought forth restlessness, that "wanting to move

on," which many observers still see in Americans today. It made Americans more

willing to "get up and go" somewhere else in search of something better. It created

certain toughness: those who were weak, or lacking in willpower, did not do well on

the frontier. And finally, it probably helped to develop a characteristic that has also

been frequently noted among Americans. In bad times and good, they tend to move

easily from one part of the country to another. They seem to settle in and feel quickly at

home wherever they go.

America still is a highly mobile society. Between 1975 and 1980, for example, 45

percent of the nation's families changed their residence. Half of those who moved

stayed within the same county. The remainder moved to a different county or state. Of

the over ten million adults and children who changed geographic regions during that

period, seven million settled in the South and West. In the course of one year (1983-

1984) alone, some 39 million Americans moved to a different house.

Internal Migration- From Frost Belt to Sun Belt

There is no doubt that the balance of population has shifted away from the

North and East to the South and West. This movement is most clearly marked by

California's status as the largest state with some 26.4 million people in 1985 (compared

with New York State's 17.8 million). The large southwestern state of Texas, with some

16.4 million people (up from 11.2 million in 1970), is the third most populous. In 1940,

11 percent of the total U.S. population lived in the West, 30 percent in the Midwest, 32

percent in the South, and 27 percent in the Northeast. Forty years later, 19 percent

lived in the West, 26 percent in the Midwest, 33 percent in the South, and 22 percent

in the Northeast.

From 1980 to 1985, the South and West had almost 85 percent of the total U.S.

population growth (11 million of 13 million). The fastest growing states during that

period were Alaska (4-29.7%), Arizona (+17.2%), Nevada (+16.9%), Florida

(+16.6%), Texas (+15%), Utah (+ 12.6%), Colorado (+ 11.8%), California (+11.4%),

and New Mexico (+11.3%). This population growth contrasts strongly with that of

other (northern and eastern) states which increased very little between 1980 and 1985,

and actually decreased in some: Massachusetts (+1.5%), Wisconsin (+1.5%), New

York (+1.3%), Illinois (+0.9%), Indiana (+0.2%), Pennsylvania (-0.1%), Ohio (-

0.5%), Michigan (-1.9%).

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Looking at the population figures of the ten largest cities in the U.S. today,

we can also see some interesting changes. The figures show only the population within

the city limits, not the metropolitan area.

Among the "top ten" cities, six are in the South and West of the U.S., namely Los

Angeles, Houston, Dallas, San Diego, Phoenix, and San Antonio. Their increases in

population range from 10 percent (Los Angeles) to 46 percent (Phoenix). With the

four northern and eastern cities, the opposite is true: each of them has lost in

population, between 9 and 28 percent of its 1970 total.

Urbanization

Another development that has continued since the founding of the United

States is the gradual but definite movement from rural to urban areas, from farms and

small towns to the cities and the suburbs. In 1880, about three quarters of all

Americans still lived in rural areas. A century later, almost three quarters lived in or

around urban areas. These urban areas are, of course, not only huge cities or

metropolitan areas with millions of people. Only 17 percent of all Americans live in

large cities of 500,000 and more, while 65 percent reside in places with 100,000 or

fewer inhabitants. In 1980, there were some 8,500 towns with fewer than 100,000

people.

In the past ten years or so, there has also been a noticeable movement out of

the central cities to the suburbs. In 1980, in fact, it was estimated that over 40 percent

of all Americans lived in suburban areas. It would be far too early, however, to talk

about a "decline" of the great cities, even those of the North that have lost a

substantial number of their middle-class populations. In many of these cities (Boston

is a well-known example), downtown areas are being renovated, made attractive, and

are thus regaining middle-class inhabitants.

There is also a notable trend toward so-called "urban villages." These areas are

often found outside the central cities, among the suburbs. They act as small city

centers, with businesses grouped around a large shopping mall, and usually include

offices, entertainment facilities, public services, parks, and health-care centers as well.

In some ways, these "mini-cities" represent a change in direction: businesses are now

going to where their customers and employees would rather live.

Crime

The crime rate in the U.S., which rose dramatically in the 1960s and 1970s, has

gone down steadily since 1980. Department of Justice statistics show that serious

crimes (murder, rape, robbery, etc.) declined 7 percent nationwide in 1983 and an

additional 4.5 percent the following year. In some areas, for example in New York

City, crime decreased 17 percent over a three-year period, with homicides and

burglaries down by 10 percent. However, experts who had predicted a further decline

were puzzled when FBI figures for 1985 showed an increase in violent crimes.

Public opinion polls show that Americans view crime as one of the most serious

problems of their society. Several studies have also shown that the amount of crime,

14

especially violent crime, is frequently overestimated. Experts believe that this

awareness and fear of crime is largely caused by the great attention it is given in

newspapers and on television, and also because violent crime is a popular theme for

television series and films. Many Americans are therefore surprised to learn that,

according to Interpol, the "general crime rate per 100,000 inhabitants" for the U.S. is

significantly lower than that for several other western nations such as Sweden, New

Zealand, or Denmark, and not much higher than those for West Germany, Austria, or

England.

Nevertheless, among all crimes, murder makes the headlines, and there is no

doubt that homicides continue to be a serious problem in America. The U.S. had a

murder rate (per 100,000 inhabitants) of 8 in the mid-1980s, compared, for instance,

with a rate of 7 for Canada, 5 for Sweden and West Germany, and 4 for Italy. It makes

a difference, of course, where someone lives in America. The murder rates (in 1985)

for states such as Texas (13.0), Florida (11.4), and Michigan (11.2) contrast with those

for Minnesota (2.1), Iowa (1.9), South Dakota (1.8), and North Dakota (1.0). In some

parts of the country, above all in decayed, inner-city areas, most people keep their

doors locked and do not walk alone at night. In other parts, few people take such

precautions.