1. suffixes added to adjective stems, as –en, -ly, -ish, -ness - weaken, pinkly, longish, clannishness

2. Origin of suffixes.

   1. native (Germanic) – er, -ful, -less, -ly

   2. Romanic – tion, -ment, -able, -eer

   3. Greek – ist, -ism, -ize

   4. Russian – nik

3. Productivity.

   1. productive – er, -ize, -ly, -ness

   2. semi-productive – eer, -ette, -ward

   3. non-productive – ard, -th

Literature:

1. G.B. Antrushina “English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1999

2. I.V. Arnold “The English Word”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1973, 1989

3. S.I. Ginsburg “A Course in Modern English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1979

4. Electronic book of the university:

Электронный учебник по лексикологии английского языка.

Составители: Сыздыкова Г.Н., Булатова С.М. Алматы, 2001

5. Multimedia lectures and seminars compiled by the instructor of English lexicology: senior teacher Asanova G.S

Problematic questions:

- What are the differences between prefixes, suffixes and infixes?

- Can you name native and borrowed, productive and non-productive affixes?

- What are the primary and secondary functions of affixes?

- What are the classifications of suffixes?

- What are the theoretical and practical value of affixes?

Tutorial # 3. Theme: “ The etymology of English words. Borrowings and assimilation of borrowings.” (2 hours)

Subtheme # 1: “Etymology of lexical units in English”

Thesis:

It is true that English vocabulary, which is one of the most extensive amongst the world’s languages contains an immense number of words of foreign origin. Explanations for this should be sought in the history of the language which is closely connected with the history of the nation speaking the language. An important distinctive feature that Lexicology deals with is etymology. Etymology is the origin of the words. According to origin the word stock may be subdivided into two main sets. The elements of one are native, the elements of the other are borrowed.

A native word is a word which belongs to the original English stock, as known from the earliest available manuscripts of the Old English period. A loan word, borrowed word or borrowings is a word taken over another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language.

The native words are further subdivided by diachronic linguistics into the Indo-European stock and Common Germanic origin. The words having cognates in the vocabularies of different Indo-European languages form the oldest layer. Words belonging to the subsets of the native word-stock are for the most part characterized by a wide range of lexical and grammatical valency, high frequency value and a developed polysemy, they are often monosyllabic, show great word-building power and enter a number of set expressions.

The part played by borrowings in the vocabulary of a language depends upon the history of each given language, being conditioned by direct linguistic contacts and political, economic and cultural relationships between nations. It is the vocabulary system of each language that is particularly responsive to every change in the life of the speaking community. The source, the scope and the semantic sphere of the loan words are all dependent upon historical factors. The very fact that up to 70% of the English vocabulary consist of loan words, and only 30% of the words are native is due not to an inherent tolerance of foreign elements but to specific conditions of the English language development.

Literature:

1. G.B. Antrushina “English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1999

2. I.V. Arnold “The English Word”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1973, 1989

3. S.I. Ginsburg “A Course in Modern English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1979

4. Electronic book of the university:

Электронный учебник по лексикологии английского языка.

Составители: Сыздыкова Г.Н., Булатова С.М. Алматы, 2001

5. Multimedia lectures and seminars compiled by the instructor of English lexicology: senior teacher Asanova G.S

Problematic questions:

- Why does the English vocabulary contain an immense number of words of foreign origin?

- What is the percentage of borrowed words in English language?

- Do borrowed words change or remain the same?

- What are the characteristic features of international words?

- What is meant by the native element of English vocabulary?

Subtheme # 2: “Native and borrowed affixes”

Thesis:

The process of affixation consists in coining a new word by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme. From the etymological point of view affixes are classified into two large groups as words: native and borrowed.

Some native suffixes

Noun-forming	-er	Worker, miner, teacher, painter
	-ness	Coldness, loneliness,loveliness
	-ing	Feeling, meaning, reading, singing
	-dom	Freedom, wisdom, kingdom
	-hood	Childhood, manhood, motherhood
	-ship	Friendship, mastership, companionship
	-th	Length, health, truth
Adjective-forming	-ful	Careful, joyful, wonderful, skilful
	-less	Careless, sleepless, senseless
	-y	Cozy, tidy, merry, snowy
	-ish	English, reddish, childish
	-ly	Lonely, lovely, ugly, likely
	-en	Wooden, woolen, golden
	-some	Handsome, quarrelsome, tiresome
Verb-forming	-en	Widen, redden, darken, sadden
Adverb-forming	-ly	Warmly, hardly, simply, carefully, coldly

Borrowed affixes, especially of Romance origin are numerous in the English vocabulary. It would be wrong, though, to suppose that affixes are borrowed in the same way and for the same reasons as words. An affix of foreign origin can be regarded as borrowed only after it has begun an independent and active life in the recipient language, that is, is taking part in the word making processes of that language. This can only occur when the total of words with this affix is so great in the recipient language as to affect the native speaker’s subconscious to the extent that they no longer realize its foreign flavour and accept it as their own.

Literature:

1. G.B. Antrushina “English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1999

2. I.V. Arnold “The English Word”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1973, 1989

3. S.I. Ginsburg “A Course in Modern English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1979

4. Electronic book of the university:

Электронный учебник по лексикологии английского языка.

Составители: Сыздыкова Г.Н., Булатова С.М. Алматы, 2001

5. Multimedia lectures and seminars compiled by the instructor of English lexicology: senior teacher Asanova G.S

Problematic questions:

- What are the native and borrowed suffixes in English?

- What are the causes of development of new meanings?

- Are all English words and affixes really English?

- What suffixes and prefixes can help you to recognize words of Latin and French origin?

Subtheme # 3: “Borrowings and reasons of it”

Thesis:

The term “source of borrowing” should be distinguished from the term “origin of borrowing”. The first should be applied to the language from which the loan word was taken into English. The second, on the other hand, refers to the language to which the word may be traced. Borrowing resorted to the word-stock of other languages for words to express new concepts, to further differentiate the existing concepts and to name new objects, phenomena. The term loan word is equivalent to borrowing. Alongside loan words proper, we distinguish loan translation and semantic loans. Translation loans are words and expressions formed from the material already existing in the British language but according to patterns taken from another language, by way of literal morpheme-for-morpheme or word-for-word translation. The term “semantic loan” is used to denote the development in an English word of a new meaning due to the influence of a related word in another language.

The question of why words are borrowed by one language from another is still unanswered. According to surveys we can mention four main reasons of borrowings:

1) Sometimes it is done to fill a gap in vocabulary, they did it because their own vocabulary system lacked words for new objects.

2) It is borrowed because it represents the same notion in some new aspect, supplies a new shade of meaning or a different emotional colouring. This type of borrowing enlarges groups of synonyms and greatly provides to enrich the expressive resources of the vocabulary, there may be a word which express some particular object.

3) It is borrowed by historical circumstances. Each time two nations come into close contact, certain borrowings are a natural consequence. The nature of the contact may be different. It may be wars, invasions or conquests, trade, international cultural relations.

4) It is borrowed “accidentally”, it means words may be borrowed “blindly” so to speak for no obvious reason.

Literature:

1. G.B. Antrushina “English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1999

2. I.V. Arnold “The English Word”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1973, 1989

3. S.I. Ginsburg “A Course in Modern English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1979

4. Electronic book of the university:

Электронный учебник по лексикологии английского языка.

Составители: Сыздыкова Г.Н., Булатова С.М. Алматы, 2001

5. Multimedia lectures and seminars compiled by the instructor of English lexicology: senior teacher Asanova G.S

Problematic questions:

- What is the percentage of borrowed words in English?

- Why words are borrowed from one language into another?

- What are the common reasons of borrowings in English?

- What is the classification of borrowings according to the language from which they were borrowed?

- Will you describe certain historical facts relating to different epochs?

- Which conditions stimulate the borrowing process?

Subtheme # 4: “Assimilation of borrowings”

Thesis:

English history is very rich in different types of contacts with other countries, that is why it is very rich in borrowings. The Roman invasion, the adoption of Cristianity, Scandinavian and Norman conquests of the British Isles, the development of British colonialism and trade and cultural relations served to increase immensely the English vocabulary. The majority of these borrowings are fully assimilated in English in their pronunciation, grammar, spelling and can be hardly distinguished from native words.

Borrowings can be classified according to different criteria:

a) according to the aspect which is borrowed

b) according to the degree of assimilation

c) according to the language from which the word was borrowed

According to the borrowed aspect there are the following groups-phonetic borrowings, translation loans, semantic borrowings, morphemic borrowings.

Phonetic borrowings are most characteristic in all languages, they are called loan words proper. Words are borrowed with their spelling, pronunciation and meaning. Then they undergo assimilation, each sound in the borrowed word is substituted by the corresponding sound of the borrowing language. In some cases the spelling is changed. The structure of the word can also be changed. The position of the stress is very often influenced by the phonetic system of the borrowing language. The paradigm of the word and sometimes the meaning of the borrowed word are also changed.

Translation loans are word-for-word (or morpheme-for-morpheme) translations of some foreign words or expressions. In such cases the notion is borrowed from a foreign language but it is expressed by native lexical units.

Semantic borrowings are such units when a new meaning of the unit existing in the language is borrowed. It can happen when we have two relative languages which have common words with different meanings.

Morphemic borrowings are borrowings of affixes which occur in the language when many words with identical affixes are borrowed from one language into another, so that the morphemic structure of borrowed words becomes familiar to the people speaking the borrowing language.

The degree of assimilation of borrowings depends on the following factors:

a) from what group of languages the word was borrowed, if the word belongs to the same group of languages to which the borrowing language belongs it is assimilated easier

b) in what way the word is borrowed: orally or in the written form, words borrowed orally are assimilated quicker

c) how often the borrowing is used in the language, the greater the frequency of its usage, the quicker it is assimilated

d) how long the word lives in the language, the longer it lives, the more assimilated it is.

Accordingly borrowings are subdivided into-completely assimilated, partly assimilated, non-assimilated (barbarisms).

Completely assimilated borrowings are not felt as foreign words in the language. Partly assimilated borrowings are subdivided into the following groups: a) borrowings non-assimilated semantically, because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from the language of which they were borrowed, b) borrowings non-assimilated grammatically, c) borrowings non-assimilated phonetically, d) borrowings can be partly assimilated graphically.

Non-assimilated borrowings are borrowings which are used by Englishmen rather seldom and are non-assimilated.

Classification of borrowings according to the language from which they were borrowed are Romanic borrowings (Latin, French, Italian), Germanic borrowings (Scandinavian, German, Holland, Russian).

Literature:

1. G.B. Antrushina “English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M.1999

2. I.V. Arnold “The English Word”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1973, 1989

3. S.I. Ginsburg “A Course in Modern English Lexicology”, “Vyssaja skola”, M. 1979

4. Electronic book of the university:

Электронный учебник по лексикологии английского языка.

Составители: Сыздыкова Г.Н., Булатова С.М. Алматы, 2001

5. Multimedia lectures and seminars compiled by the instructor of English lexicology: senior teacher Asanova G.S

Problematic questions:

- What is the assimilation of borrowings?

- What is the classification of borrowings according to the degree of assimilation?

- What factors that the degree of assimilation of borrowings depend on?

- What stages of assimilation do borrowings go through?