19. Rainbow Tour

vocals by Jonathan Pryce and Antonio Banderas

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

[Peron and some of his officers reflect on Eva's European progress. Che takes over many of the officers' lines during this sequence and also adds various comments of his own.]

(Peron)

People of Europe! I send you the Rainbow of Argentina!

(Che and Aides)

Spain has fallen to the charms of Evita

She can do what she likes - it doesn't matter much

She's our Lady of the New World with the golden touch.

She filled a bull-ring - forty-five thousand seater.

But if you're prettier than General Franco

That's not hard.

(Aides)

Franco's reign in Spain should see out the forties

So you've just acquired an ally who

Looks as secure in his job as you

But more important, current political thought is

Your wife's a phenomenal asset

Your trump card

(Aides)

Let's hear it for the Rainbow Tour

It's been an incredible success

We weren't quite sure, we had a few doubts.......

(Peron:) Will Evita win through? (Aides:) But the answer is “Yes” (Peron)

There you are, I told you so

Makes no difference where she goes

The whole world over – just the same

Just listen to them call her name

And who would underestimate the actress now?

(Che)

Now I don't like to spoil a wonderful story

But the news from Rome isn't quite as good

She hasn't gone down like we thought she would

Italy's unconvinced by Argentine glory

They equate Peron with Mussolini

Can't think why

(Eva) (in Italy)

Did you here that?

They called me a whore!

They actually called me a whore!

(An Italian Admiral)

But Signora Peron--

It's an easy mistake

I'm still called an admiral

Yet I gave up the sea long ago

(Che)

More bad news from Rome she met with the Pope

She only got a rosary, a kindly word

I wouldn't say the Holy Father gave her the bird

But Papal decorations never a hope

(Aide)

She still looked the part at St. Peter's

Caught the eye

(Peron and Officers)

Let's hear it for the Rainbow Tour

It's been an incredible success

We weren't quite sure, we had a few doubts

(Che)

Will Evita win through?

(Peron and Officers)

But the answer is -

(Che)

A qualified -

(Peron and Officers)

Yes!

(Che:) Eva started well, no question, in France Shining like a sun through the post-war haze A beautiful reminder of the care-free days She nearly captured the French, she sure had the chance But she suddenly seemed to lose interest She looked tired (Che:) Face the facts, the Rainbow's starting to fade I don't think she'll make it to England now (Aide #1:) It wasn't on the schedule anyhow (Che:) You'd better get out the flags and fix a parade Some kind of coming home in triumph is required (chorus)

(Aide #2:) Would Evita win through? (Aide #1:) And the answer is (Aide #2:) Yes (Che:) And no (Aides:) And yes (Che:) And no (Aides:) And yes (Che:) No (chorus) (Aides:) Would Evita win through? But the answer is (Aide #2:) Yes (Aide #1:) Yes (Aide #2:) Yes

20. The Actress Hasn't Learned The Lines (You'd Like To Hear)

vocals by Madonna and Antonio Banderas ------------------------- (Aristocrats:) Thus all fairy stories end Only an actress would pretend Affairs of state are her latest play Eight shows a week, two matinees My how the worm begins to turn When will the chorus girl ever learn? My how the worm begins to turn When will the chorus girl ever learn? (Eva:) The chorus girl hasn't learned the lines you'd like to hear She won't go scrambling over the backs of the poor to be accepted By making donations just large enough to the correct charity She won't be president of your wonderful societies of philanthropy Even if you asked her to be As you should have asked her to be The actress hasn't learned the lines you'd like to hear She won't join your clubs, she won't dance in your halls She won't help the hungry once a month at your tombolas She'll simply take control as you disappear (Che:) Forgive my intrusion, but fine as those sentiments sound Little has changed for us peasants down here on the ground I hate to sound childish, ungrateful, I don't like to moan But do you now represent anyone's cause but your own? (Eva:) Everything done will be justified by my foundation

21. And The Money Kept Rolling In (And Out)

vocals by Antonio Banderas -------------------------

(Che:) And the money kept rolling in from every side Eva's pretty hands reached out and they reached wide Now you may feel it should have been a voluntary cause But that's not the point my friends When the money keeps rolling in, you don't ask how Think of all the people guaranteed a good time now Eva's called the hungry to her, open up the doors Never been a fund like the Foundation Eva Peron Chorus: (Workers:) Rollin' rollin' rollin', rollin' rollin' rollin' Rollin' rollin' rollin', rollin' rollin' rollin' Rollin' rollin' rollin', rollin' rollin' rollin' Rollin' rollin' rollin', rollin' rollin' rollin' Rollin' on in, rollin' on in Rollin' on in, rollin' on in On in (Che:) Would you like to try a college education? Own your landlord's house, take the family on vacation? Eva and her blessed fund can make your dreams come true Here's all you have to do my friends Write your name and your dream on a card or a pad or a ticket Throw it high in the air and should our lady pick it She will change your way of life for a week or even two Name me anyone who cares as much as Eva Peron (chorus) Rollin' on out, rollin' on out Rollin' on out, rollin' on out On out (Che:) And the money kept rolling out in all directions To the poor, to the weak, to the destitute of all complexions Now cynics claim a little of the cash has gone astray But that's not the point my friends When the money keeps rolling out you don't keep books You can tell you've done well by the happy grateful looks Accountants only slow things down, figures get in the way Never been a lady loved as much as Eva Peron (chorus) Rollin' on out, rollin' on out Rollin' on out, rollin' on out On out (Che:) Eva!!! When the money keeps rolling out you don't keep books You can tell you've done well by the happy grateful looks Accountants only slow things down, figures get in the way Never been a lady loved as much as Eva Peron (chorus) Rollin' on out, rollin' on out Rollin' on out, rollin' on out Rollin' on out, rollin' on out On out

22. Partido Feminista

vocals by Madonna ------------------------- (Crowd:) [Evita Peron, Partido Feminista] (repeat in background) (Eva:) Peron is everything, he is the soul, the nerve The hope and the reality of the Argentine people We all know that there is only one man in our movement With his own source of light We all feed from his light, and that is Peron (Che:) And now she wants to be vice-president (Officers:) That was the over-the-top, unacceptable suggestion We didn't approve but we couldn't prevent The games of the wife of the president But to give her pretensions, encouragement? She's out of her depth, and out of the question

23. She Is A Diamond

vocals by Jonathan Pryce ------------------------- (Peron:) But on the other hand, she's all they have She's a diamond in their dull gray lives And that's the hardest kind of stone It usually survives And when you think about it, can you recall The last time they loved anyone at all? She's not a bauble you can brush aside She's been out doing what we just talked about, example Gave us back our businesses, got the English out And when you think about it, well why not do One or two of the things we promised to? But on the other hand, she's slowing down She's lost a little of that magic drive But I would not advise those critics present to derive Any satisfaction from her fading star She's the one who's kept us where we are (Officers:) She's the one who's kept you where you are

24. Santa Evita

vocals by Antonio Banderas and the choir -------------------------

(Workers:) Santa Santa Evita Madre de todos los ninos De los tiranizados, de los descamisados De los trabajadores, de la Argentina (repeat and fade)

(Che:) Turn a blind eye, Evita, turn a blind eye

(Children:) Please, gentle Eva, will you bless a little child? For I love you, tell Heaven I'm doing my best I'm praying for you, even though you're already blessed Please, mother Eva, will you look upon me as your own? Make me special, be my angel Be my everything wonderful perfect and true And I'll try to be exactly like you Please, mother Eva, will you look upon me as your own? Make me special, be my angel Be my everything wonderful perfect and true And I'll try to be exactly like you

Please, holy Eva, will you feed a hungry child? For I love you, tell Heaven I'm doing my best (Che:) Turn a blind eye, Evita, turn a blind eye

I'm praying for you, even though you're already blessed [(Che:) Why try to love a country when you can become a saint?

25. Waltz For Eva And Che

vocals by Madonna and Antonio Banderas ------------------------- (Che:) Tell me before I waltz out of your life Before turning my back on the past Forgive my impertinent behavior But how long do you think this pantomime can last? Tell me before I ride off in the sunset There's one thing I never got clear How can you claim you're our savior When those who oppose you are stepped on, Or cut up, or simply disappear? (Eva:) Tell me before you get onto your bus Before joining the forgotten brigade How can one person like me, say, Alter the time-honored way the game is played? Tell me before you get onto your high horse Just what you expect me to do I don't care what the bourgeoisie say I'm not in business for them But to give all my descamisados A magical moment or two (Che and Eva:) There is evil, ever around Fundamental system of government Quite incidental (Eva:) So what are my chances of honest advances? I'd say low Better to win by admitting my sin Than to lose with a halo (Che:) Tell me before I seek worthier pastures And thereby restore self-esteem How can you be so short-sighted To look never further than this week or next week To have no impossible dream? (Eva:) Allow me to help you slink off to the sidelines And mark your adieu with three cheers But first tell me who'd be delighted If I said I'd take on the world's greatest problems From war to pollution, no hope of solution Even if I lived for one hundred years

(Che and Eva:) There is evil, ever around Fundamental system of government Quite incidental (Eva:) So go, if you're able, to somewhere unstable And stay there Whip up your hate in some tottering state But not here, dear Is that clear, dear? Oh what I'd give for a hundred years But the physical interferes Every day more,

Oh my Creator, What is the good of the strongest heart In a body that's falling apart? A serious flaw, I hope You know that

26. Your Little Body's Slowly Breaking Down

vocals by Madonna and Jonathan Pryce ------------------------- (Peron:) Your little body's slowly breaking down You're losing speed, you're losing strength, not style That goes on flourishing forever But your eyes, your smile Do not have the sparkle of your fantastic past If you climb one more mountain it could be your last (Eva:) I'm not that ill, bad moments come but they go Some days are fine, some a little bit harder But that doesn't mean we should give up our dream Have you ever seen me defeated? Don't you forget what I've been through and yet I'm still standing (Peron:) Eva, you are dying (Eva:) So what happens now? Where am I going to? (Peron:) Don't ask anymore

27. You Must Love Me

vocals by Madonna ------------------------- Where do we go from here? This isn't where we intended to be We had it all, you believed in me I believed in you Certainties disappear What do we do for our dream to survive? How do we keep all our passions alive, As we used to do?

Bridge: Deep in my heart I'm concealing Things that I'm longing to say Scared to confess what I'm feeling Frightened you'll slip away

Chorus: You must love me You must love me

Why are you at my side? How can I be any use to you now? Give me a chance and I'll let you see how Nothing has changed (bridge) (chorus) You must love me 28. Eva's Final Broadcast

vocals by Madonna ------------------------- (Eva:) The actress hasn't learned the lines you'd like to hear She's sad for her country, sad to be defeated By her own weak body (Crowds:) [Evita! Evita!] (repeat in background) (Eva:) I want to tell the people of Argentina I've decided I should decline All the honors and titles you've pressed me to take For I'm contented Let me simply go on as the woman who brings her people To the heart of Peron Don't cry for me Argentina The truth is I shall not leave you Though it may get harder for you to see me I'm Argentina, and always will be Have I said too much? There's nothing more I can think of to say to you But all you have to do is look at me to know That every word is true

29. Latin Chant

(Choir:)

Respice, quaesumus, Domine Famulam tuam Evita In infirmitate Et animam refove, quam creasti Ut castigationibus emendata Se tua sentiat medicina salvatam Per Christum, Dominuum Qui vivit et regnat Per omnia saecula saeculorum Amen

(Look with favor, we beseech Thee, Oh Lord Upon Thy handmaid Evita In her weakness And refresh the soul which Thou hast created That being corrected by Thy chastisement She may find herself cured by Thy healing Through Christ, Our Lord Who lives and reigns Forever and ever Amen)

(Che) She had her moments, she had some style The best show in town was the crowd Outside the Casa Rosada crying, "Eva Peron" But that's all gone now

30. Lament

vocals by Madonna and Antonio Banderas ------------------------- [In her last hours, images, people and events from Eva's life flow through her mind, while the grief of the nation knows no bounds]

(Eva:) The choice was mine, and mine completely I could have any prize that I desired I could burn with the splendor of the brightest fire Or else, or else I could choose time Remember I was very young then And a year was forever and a day So what use could fifty, sixty, seventy be? I saw the lights, and I was on my way And how I lived, how they shone But how soon the lights were gone (Che:) The choice was yours and no one else's You can cry for a body in despair Hang your head because she is no longer there To shine, to dazzle, or betray How she lived, how she shone But how soon the lights were gone (Embalmers:) Eyes, hair, face, image All must be preserved Still life displayed forever No less than she deserved.

A SHORT GUIDE TO COMPOSER DATA

Bach Johann Sebastian (1685-1750), German organist and composer of the baroque era, one of the greatest and most productive geniuses in the history of Western music. He is perhaps best known as a supreme master of counterpoint.

Bach Johann Christian (1735-82), German composer, youngest son of Johann Sebastian Bach, born in Leipzig, and given his first musical training there by his father. J.S.Bach wrote about a dozen operas and many symphonies, concertos, piano pieces, and chamber music.

Bach Philip Emmanuel (1714-88), German composer, one of the most influential and celebrated composers of his era. The third son of Johann Sebastian Bach, he was born in Weimar and trained under his father. Bach wrote a large number of works, including 210 harpsichord pieces, 52 concertos, oratorios, passions, and church cantatas.

Bach Wilhelm Friedman (1710-84), German composer and organist, oldest son of Johann Sebastian Bach, born in Weimar, and instructed in music by his father. His music is representative of the empfindsamer Stil (German, “expressive style”), one of the preclassical styles that flourished during the mid-18th century. Bach's compositions include 21 cantatas, 9 symphonies, several keyboard concertos, and many fantasies, fugues, preludes, and sonatas for keyboard instruments

Balakirev Mily Alekseyevich (1837-1910), Russian composer and member of The Five, born in Nizhniy Novgorod, and trained in his native city and at the University of Kazan’. In 1861 Balakirev formed, with four other nationally conscious Russian composers, a group known as The Five; under Balakirev's influence The Five broke away from musical forms, using Russian folk melodies in their compositions and Russian folktales as a basis for their operas. The four others were Modest Mussorgsky, Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov, Aleksandr Borodin, and César Cui. In 1862 Balakirev helped found the Free School of Music in St. Petersburg, and in 1869 he became director of the Imperial Chapel and Imperial Music Society. Among his compositions are the symphonic poems Tamara and Russia and the fantasia for piano Islamey. He also wrote for piano and for voice.

Bartok Bela (1881-1945), Hungarian composer, one of the most original figures in 20th century music.

Beethoven, Ludwig van (1770-1827), German composer, generally considered one of the greatest composers in the Western tradition. Beethoven's major output consists of 9 symphonies, 7 concertos (5 for piano), 17 string quartets, 32 piano sonatas, 10 sonatas for violin and piano, 5 sonatas for cello and piano, an opera, 2 masses, several overtures, and numerous sets of piano variations. Today Beethoven's works form the core of orchestral and chamber music repertoires worldwide.

Berlioz , (Louis) Hector (1803-69), French composer, who was a principal force in the development of 19th-century musical romanticism. Berlioz's masterpiece is considered to be his monumental opera Les Troyens (The Trojans, 1856-59), in which his romanticism is infused with classical restraint.

Boccherini, Luigi Rodolfo (1743-1805), Italian composer, known for his chamber music and one of the earliest great cello virtuosos. His compositions are marked by great elegance and refinement of style, and in many the cello part is especially prominent.

Borodin Alexander Porfiryevich (1833-87), Russian composer and chemist, one of the first Russian composers to gain an international reputation. He joined the circle of the Russian composer Mily Balakirev and became known as one of The Five, a group of nationally conscious Russian composers. In 1869 he began the opera Prince Igor, working with a libretto based on the epic The Story of Igor's Army, but soon left the opera and incorporated the composed parts in his Second Symphony in B Minor (1869-76). He then resumed work on the opera; still unfinished at his death, it was orchestrated and completed by the Russian composers Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov and Aleksandr Glazunov.

Brahms, Johannes (1833-97), German composer, one of the major composers of the 19th century, whose works combine the best of the classical and romantic schools. His masterpieces include the grandiloquent Symphony no. 1 in C Minor (1876); the gentler, more mellifluous Symphony No. 2 in D Major (1877); the poetic Symphony No. 3 in F Major (1883); and the Symphony No. 4 in E Minor (1885), with its brilliant and emotionally overwhelming finale.

Byrd, William (1543?-1623), greatest English composer of the Elizabethan age. Born probably at Lincoln, he was organist at the Lincoln Cathedral from 1563 to 1572, when he became organist for the Chapel Royal. Byrd composed 6 Anglican services and about 60 anthems, but his Latin church music is considered his most glorious work; its breadth and intensity are unmatched in English music.

Chopin, Frederic François (1810-1849), Polish composer and pianist of the romantic school, regarded by some as the greatest of all composers of music for the piano. Nearly all of Chopin's compositions are for piano.

Couperin, François (1668-1733), called Le Grand (French, “the great”), French composer, organist, and harpsichordist, whose works stand at the apex of French baroque music. Couperin introduced the trio sonata to France, infusing this Italian genre with a characteristically French treatment of melody and ornamentation. His organ masses are among the finest examples of French baroque organ music.

Debussy (Achille) Claude (1862-1918), French composer, whose harmonic innovations helped pave the way for the musical upheavals of the 20th century. The term impressionism is still used to describe Debussy's work. Debussy himself did not create a school of composition, but he liberated music from the limitations of traditional harmony. Among Debussy's numerous other important works are the ballet score Jeux (Games, 1912), the orchestral poem La mer (The Sea, 1905), and the songs in Cinq poèmes de Baudelaire (Five Poems of Baudelaire, 1889).

Delius, Frederick (1862-1934), English composer, born in Bradford, Yorkshire, of German parents. The music of Delius is characterized by poetic atmosphere and subtle evocation of moods and by lyric and rich harmonic qualities rather than by contrapuntal or rhythmic values. Among his works are the operas A Village Romeo and Juliet (1900-1) and Fennimore and Gerda (1910); the works for orchestra Brigg Fair (1907) and On Hearing the First Cuckoo in Spring (1912); the Concerto for Violin (1916); and chamber music and songs.

Despres (also Desprez), Josquin (circa 1440-1521), most influential and highly regarded composer of the Renaissance. Josquin's 20 masses encompass all the techniques of his era, from the strict, structurally ingenious four-part style of the early Netherlands-school composers to late Renaissance techniques of close melodic imitation, chordal writing, and free variation of borrowed material. In his motets, melodic imitation is the prevailing technique. Above all, the motets show highly expressive treatment of text, reflecting Josquin's deep religious conviction as well as the age's new humanistic attention to personal expression. To his secular compositions, mostly polyphonic (multivoiced) French chansons, or songs, he applied a range of techniques, from simple and chordal to highly imitative.

Dufay, Guillaume (circa 1400-74), French composer, who was one of the early masters of counterpoint, especially four-part music, and was influential in establishing the smooth harmonic idiom of Renaissance writing. Among his compositions are magnificats, masses, motets, and songs.

Dunstable, John (circa 1390-1453). Reacting against the complexities of the ars nova, most early 15th-century composers preferred a simpler style of music with smoothly flowing melodies, smoother-sounding harmonies, and less emphasis on counterpoint. The first major impetus toward a simpler style came from the English composer John Dunstable. The graceful aspects of his style were soon adopted by composers on the continent of Europe. Only a tiny fraction of Dunstable’s work is of the secular variety, and of these the most widely circulated piece, O Rosa bella, is now known to be the work of Dunstable’s younger contemporary John Bedyngham.

Dvorak, Antonin (1841-1904), Czech composer, a leading European composer of the 19th century, and the foremost representative of the Czech national school in composition. Dvorak's compositions also include nine symphonies (1865-93); music for the piano, including the well-known “Humoresque” (1894); two sets of Slavonic Dances (1878 and 1886) for piano duet (later orchestrated by Dvorak); the operas Vanda (1875), The Jacobin (1887-88), Rusalka (1901), and Armida (1902-3); symphonic poems; chamber music; oratorios, cantatas, and masses; and a violin concerto.

Elgar, Sir Edward William (1857-1934), the first modern English composer to write important choral and orchestral music. The Dreams of Gerontius, based on a poem by the British churchman John Henry Newman, and generally considered Elgar's masterpiece, firmly established the reputation of the composer. Elgar's work, a late example of romanticism, is notable for its wit, lyrical beauty, and distinctive form. Elgar also wrote the cantatas The Black Knight (1893) and Caractacus (1898); the oratorios The Apostles (1903) and The Kingdom (1906); a concerto for violin (1910) and one for cello (1919); and the five popular Pomp and Circumstance marches (1901-7, 1930). His orchestral works include the overture Cockaigne (1902); the symphonic study Falstaff (1913); and two symphonies, in A-flat (1908) and in E-flat (1911). He was at work on a third symphony at the time of his death, February 23, 1934, at Worcester.

Frescobaldi, Girolamo (1583-1643), Italian organist and composer of the late Renaissance, who greatly influenced the development of baroque music. Born and trained in Ferrara, he was organist at Saint Peter's in Rome from 1608 until his death, except for six years as court organist in Florence. His importance can be noted in the shifting harmonies, daring chromaticism, and subtle dissonances of his toccatas, fantasias, ricercari, and other keyboard forms and in his ingenious variations. His liturgical collection Fiori musicali (Musical Flowers, 1635) so deeply impressed J. S. Bach that he copied it out in full.

Gershwin, George (1898-1937), American composer, whose musicals and popular songs are among the finest in those genres and whose compositions in art-music forms are infused with the idioms of jazz and popular music. Gershwin's songs are marked by uncommon harmonic inventiveness, and he was one of the first to introduce into popular songs the rhythms and melodic twists of jazz. Among his best-known songs are “The Man I Love,” “I Got Rhythm,” and “Someone to Watch Over Me.” At the invitation of the bandleader Paul Whiteman, Gershwin wrote his Rhapsody in Blue (1924) for piano and jazz band, later orchestrated by the American composer Ferde Grofй. The work profoundly influenced European and American composers to use jazz-derived melodic and rhythmic patterns.

Gesualdo, Don Carlo (circa 1560-1613), sometimes known as the Prince of Venosa, Italian lutenist and composer, known for the daring chromatic harmonies of his madrigals. After ordering the murder of his wife, her lover, and their infant in 1590, he traveled from his native Naples to northern Italy. In 1594 he married the Ferrarese noblewoman Eleonora d'Este and settled at the court of Ferrara. When the death of Duke Alfonso II d'Este (1533-97) marked the end of Ferrara as a cultural center, Gesualdo returned to Naples. Of his six volumes of five-part madrigals, the last two especially reveal a dramatic, highly innovative harmonic style aimed at emotional expression.

Glazunov, Aleksandr Konstantinovich (1865-1936), Russian composer, the last important composer of the Russian national school founded by Mikhail Glinka, born in Saint Petersburg. Glazunov studied principally with the eminent Russian composer Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov. His compositions include eight symphonies, the symphonic poems Stenka Razin and The Kremlin (1892), the ballets Raymonda (1898) and The Seasons (1901), the Violin Concerto op. 82 (1904), chamber music, and music for piano and for voice.

Glinka, Mikhail Ivanovich (1804-57), Russian composer, born in Novospasskoye, and educated in Saint Petersburg. Glinka studied with various teachers in Russia, Italy, and Germany. Until 1835 his compositions consisted mainly of songs. His opera A Life for the Tsar (1836), which drew its story and music from Russian folktales and folk songs, was the first Russian opera of a national character. The music of his second opera, Russlan and Ludmilla (1842), based on a poem by the Russian poet Aleksandr Pushkin, was also drawn largely from Russian folk music. Glinka established himself as the founder of the Russian national school of music, which was subsequently carried on by such composers as Aleksandr Borodin, Modest Mussorgsky, and Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov. Glinka was also interested in the popular music and dance of Spain, where he lived from 1845 to 1847, which inspired the overtures Jota Aragonesa and Night in Madrid (1851). His other works include the orchestral fantasia Kamarinskaya (1848), chamber music, piano pieces, and songs.

Gluck, Christoph Willibald (1714-87), German composer, whose work to reform opera had far-reaching influence. The opera Orfeo ed Euridice, which surpassed in grandeur, dignity, dramatic quality, and naturalness anything he had written before was produced in Vienna in 1762 with great success. Among other operas in his “grand” manner were Alceste (1767) and Paride ed Elena (Paris and Helen, 1770), on texts by Calzabigi; Iphigénie en Aulide (Iphigenia in Aulis, 1774); and Armide (1777). Gluck's reforms made a lasting mark on opera. The principles for which he stood influenced the work of many composers who followed him, including Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Luigi Cherubini, Ludwig van Beethoven, and Richard Wagner.

Handel, George Frideric (1685-1759), one of the greatest composers of the late baroque period (1700-1750) and, during his lifetime, perhaps the most internationally famous of all musicians. Handel's legacy lies in the dramatic power and lyrical beauty inherent in all his music. His operas move from the rigid use of conventional schemes toward a more flexible and dramatic treatment of recitative, arioso, aria, and chorus. Handel's greatest gift to posterity was undoubtedly the creation of the dramatic oratorio genre. Although today, as in the 19th century, Handel is best known for only a few of his works, such as Water Music and Messiah, more and more attempts are being made to bring his other compositions, especially his operas, before the public.

Haydn, (Franz) Joseph (1732-1809), Austrian composer, recognized as a dominant force in the development of the musical style of the classical era (circa 1750-circa 1820). Haydn was prolific in nearly all genres, vocal and instrumental, sacred and secular. The 107 symphonies and 68 string quartets that span his career are proof of his ever-fresh approach to thematic materials and form, as well as of his mastery of instrumentation. His 62 piano sonatas and 43 piano trios document a growth from the easy elegance suitable for the home music making of amateurs to the public virtuosity of his late works.

Horowitz, Vladimir (1904-1989), Russian-American pianist, one of the most well-known concert artists of the 20th century. Born and trained in Kyiv, Ukraine, Horowitz made his debut in 1921 and in 1928 appeared for the first time in London and New York City. His United States debut caused a sensation, as audiences and critics responded to the power, technical prowess, and tonal mastery of his playing.

Ives, Charles E(dward) (1874-1954), American composer, whose technical innovations and freedom of imagination anticipated much 20th-century music and inspired younger musicians. Among Ives's works are four symphonies; Holidays (four sketches for orchestra, 1904-13); Three Quarter-Tone Pieces (1923-1924) and the monumental Second Piano Sonata (subtitled Concord, Massachusetts, 1840-1860; (1909-1915), both for piano; string quartets; violin sonatas; and 114 Songs (1921). His writings include Essays Before a Sonata (1920; reprinted 1970 as Essays Before a Sonata, the Majority, and Other Writings).

Leoncavallo, Ruggiero (1858-1919), Italian composer, who was an exponent of the verismo, or realistic, style in opera, a reaction against the romantic operas of the day. Leoncavallo’s La Bohème (The Bohemian, 1897) is considered one of his finest works, but its popularity has always been overshadowed by the renown of the opera La Bohème (1896) written by Italian composer Giacomo Puccini. Both composers, working on their versions concurrently, based their operas on a novel entitled Scènes de la Vie de Bohème (Scenes from Bohemian Life, 1847-1849) by French writer Henri Murger. Although Leoncavallo wrote a number of other operas, only La Bohème and Zaza (1900) achieved even modest success.

Liszt, Franz (1811-86), Hungarian-born pianist and composer, founder of the solo piano recital and perhaps the greatest pianist of all time, as well as one of the important composers of the 19th century. Liszt was one of the 19th century's harmonic innovators, especially in his use of complex, chromatic chords. He was an innovator also with respect to form, especially in his technique of thematic transformation, later known as leitmotiv. This technique and his chromatic harmony strongly influenced Wagner and Richard Strauss. His compositions for the piano inaugurated a revolutionary, difficult playing technique that gave to the piano an unprecedented variety of textures and sonorities. Among his well-known works for the piano are the Sonata in B Minor (1853), the 12 Transcendental Etudes (1851), the 20 Hungarian Rhapsodies (1846-1885; no. 20 unpublished), Six Paganini Etudes (1851), Concerto No. 1, in E-Flat (1849; revised 1853), Concerto No. 2, in A-Major (1848; revised 1856-1861), and the character pieces making up the three-volume Years of Pilgrimage (1855, 1858, 1877). Although the ultimate value of Liszt's large output remains uncertain, its originality is unquestioned; in harmony and form, his later compositions foreshadow music of such 20th-century composers as the Austrian Arnold Schoenberg and the Hungarian Bela Bartok.

Lloyd Webber, Sir Andrew (1948- ), British composer of theatrical music, whose popular stage musicals include Jesus Christ Superstar (1971; in collaboration with British librettist Timothy Rice), Cats (1981), and Phantom of the Opera (1986). In 1967, while a student, he wrote with Rice Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat for a school performance. The musical was later professionally produced at the international arts festival in Edinburgh, Scotland, and at the Brooklyn Academy of Music in New York in 1972. Lloyd Webber and Rice next collaborated on Jesus Christ Superstar, which, issued as a record album, sold more than 3 million copies before the show opened on Broadway. The musical was nominated for five Tony Awards, and Lloyd Webber, as composer, won the Drama Desk Award (1973). Jesus Christ Superstar then became the longest-running musical in the history of British theater and was produced throughout the world. Another Lloyd Webber-Rice collaboration, Evita (1978), opened in New York in 1979, where it won the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award, seven Tony Awards, and a Grammy Award. Lloyd Webber's Cats (1981) won two Tony Awards, and Phantom of the Opera (1986) won seven Tony Awards. Lloyd Webber also wrote the music for Starlight Express (1984), and Aspects of Love (1989), and Sunset Boulevard (1993), which won two Tony Awards. In 1990 he was the recipient of a Grammy Legends Award.

Mahler, Gustav (1860-1911), Austrian composer and conductor, whose works mark the culmination of postromantic development of the symphony and were a major influence on such 20th-century composers as the Austrians Arnold Schoenberg and Alban Berg. Of Mahler's symphonies, the unnumbered Das Lied von der Erde (Song of the Earth, 1908) and four of the nine numbered symphonies include solo voices with or without chorus.

massenet, Jules Emile Frederic (1842-1912), French composer, who wrote oratorios, cantatas, instrumental pieces, and orchestral suites. His popularity rests mainly on his operas, with their graceful, sensuous melodies and sentimental plots. Manon (1884), based on the novel Manon Lescaut by the French novelist Antoine Franзois Prevost d'Exiles, is his most important work and is still frequently performed.

Mendelssohn, Felix (1809-47), German composer, one of the leading figures of early 19th-century European romanticism. Mendelssohn was a prolific composer. Of his five symphonies, the best known are the Italian Symphony (1833) and the Scotch Symphony (1843). His organ and choral music is among the best of the 19th century and includes, for choir and orchestra, the oratorios St. Paul (1836) and Elijah (1846) and the cantata Erste Walpurgisnacht (First Walpurgis-Night, 1832; revised 1843); and his organ sonatas, preludes, and fugues. Also important are the Variations serieuses (1841) for piano; his concert overtures, including The Hebrides (1832); his concertos for violin (1844) and for piano (1831, 1837); and the eight volumes of Songs Without Words for piano (1830-45; some of these are by his sister Fanny).

Monteverdi, Claudio Giovanni Antonio (1567-1643), Italian composer, the most important figure in the transition from Renaissance to baroque music. In 1607 Monteverdi's first musical drama, Orfeo, was produced. The public received Orfeo enthusiastically, and with his next opera, Arianna (1608), Monteverdi's reputation as an opera composer was firmly established. In 1637 the first public opera house was opened, and Monteverdi, stimulated by the enthusiastic response to opera, wrote a new series of operas, of which two remain, Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria (The Return of Ulysses to His Homeland, 1641) and L'incoronazione di Poppea (The Coronation of Poppaea, 1642). Written in Monteverdi's old age, these operas contain scenes of great dramatic intensity in which the vocal and orchestral music accurately reflect the thoughts and emotions of the characters. They influenced many subsequent composers of opera and are still performed today.

Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus (1756-91), Austrian composer, a centrally important composer of the classical era, and one of the most inspired composers in Western musical tradition. Mozart ranks as one of the great geniuses of Western civilization. His large output (more than 600 works) shows that even as a child he possessed a thorough command of the technical resources of musical composition as well as an original imagination. His instrumental works include symphonies, divertimentos, sonatas, chamber music for a number of instrumental combinations, and concertos; his vocal works consist mainly of church music and operas.

Mussorgsky, Modest Petrovich (1839-1881), Russian composer, considered one of the most original and influential of the 19th-century Russian nationalist composers. When he was 18 years old, he met Russian nationalist composer Aleksandr Dargomyzhsky, through whom Mussorgsky joined the circle of Russian nationalist composers now known as The Five. His songs, among the finest of the 19th century, reflect his desire to reproduce the rhythms and contours of Russian speech. So also does his masterpiece, the opera Boris Godunov, based on a drama by Russian author Aleksandr Pushkin. Completed in 1868 and first produced (after considerable changes) in 1874, it is a monumental work, unusual in its musical and dramatic use of the chorus and admired for its psychological insight and its evocation of the Russian people. Mussorgsky's other works include the piano suite Pictures at an Exhibition (1874, orchestrated in 1922 by French composer Maurice Ravel); the symphonic poem Saint John's Night on the Bare Mountain (1867; also known as Night on Bald Mountain); the song cycles The Nursery (1872) and Songs and Dances of Death (1877); and the unfinished operas Khovanashchina, completed by Rimsky-Korsakov, and The Fair at Sorochinsk, completed by Cйsar Cui, another member of The Five.

Ockeghem, Johannes (circa 1420-96), Flemish composer, the most important composer of his generation in the Netherlands school that dominated Renaissance music. Possibly a pupil of the eminent Netherlands-school composer Gilles Binchois, Ockeghem served as composer and choirmaster to three French kings: Charles VII, Louis XI, and Charles VIII. At his death, a Deploration (lament) was composed by his pupil (according to tradition), the French composer Josquin Desprez, and a lament by the philosopher Erasmus was set to music by the French composer Johannes Lupi. Ockeghem's masses, motets, and chansons (secular part-songs) show great skill at counterpoint based on melodic imitation.

Offenbach, Jacques (1819-80), French composer, whose witty and satiric operettas are considered masterpieces of comic opera (French opera bouffe). By 1875 he had composed 90 operettas, many of them to librettos by the French writer Ludovic Halevy. Of Offenbach's works, the most often performed today are Orpheus in the Underworld (1858), La Perichole (1868), and his masterpiece, the grand opera The Tales of Hoffmann (1880, premiered posthumously, 1881), which contains the popular “Barcarolle.” Offenbach's musical style is prevailingly witty and light.

Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da (1525?-94), Italian composer, ranked among the greatest of Renaissance composers. Palestrina was born in the town of Palestrina, southeast of Rome. He studied singing at the Church of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome beginning about 1537. His music is vocal; no parts are written specifically for instruments. Palestrina’s religious music includes 102 masses, 250 motets, 35 magnificats, 68 offertories, 45 hymns, and other works. His secular works include many madrigals. Unlike most influential composers, Palestrina was not primarily an innovator in musical technique. Rather, he provided a model for other composers to emulate when they wished to recapture the mystical religious tone that his music exemplifies.

Puccini, Giacomo (1858-1924), Italian composer, whose operas blend intense emotion and theatricality with tender lyricism, colorful orchestration, and a rich vocal line. Puccini’s operas include La Boheme (The Bohemian, 1896), Tosca (1900), a standard repertory piece, and Madama Butterfly (1904).

rachmaninov, Sergey Vasilyevich (1873-1943), Russian composer, pianist, and conductor, one of the most brilliant pianists of the 20th century, whose compositions are considered the last major musical expression of the romantic era. Rachmaninoff’s Prelude in C-sharp Minor (1892), for piano and orchestra, and his opera Aleko (1893) established his reputation as a composer. Rachmaninoff left Russia in 1917 and settled in the United States the following year. In exile he concentrated on his piano and conducting careers, making recordings in both fields. His few compositions after 1917 include the Variations on a Theme of Corelli (1934), for piano; Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini (1936), for piano and orchestra; the Symphony No. 3 in A Minor (1936); and the Piano Concerto No. 4 in G Minor (1937). Rachmaninoff died in Beverly Hills, California, on March 28, 1943.

Rameau, Jean Philippe (1683-1764), French composer, the country's greatest of the 18th century, and a highly influential music theorist. He moved to Paris in 1723, where he taught harpsichord and music theory. His early compositions include light theatrical pieces and religious and harpsichord music. Rameau's 30 or so operas include many masterpieces of the French lyric theater: the tragedies Hippolyte et Aricie (Hippolytus and Aricia, 1733), Castor et Pollux (Castor and Pollux, 1737), Dardanus (1739 and 1744 versions), and Zoroastre (1749); the opйra-ballets Les Indes galantes (The Gallant Indies, 1735), Les fetes d'Hebe (The Festivals of Hebe, 1739), and La princesse de Navarre (1745); and the comedy Platee (1745). His orchestration was powerful and innovative, as was the manner in which he used harmony for dramatic effect.

His Pieces de clavecin en concerts (Concerted Music for Harpsichord, 1741), for two violins and harpsichord, are among the earliest such works to give the keyboard an independent, rather than accompanying, part. His theoretical writing set in systematic form the harmonic practices of the previous 100 years and detailed theoretical concepts that remained basic to European harmony until about 1900. Rameau died in Paris, September 12, 1764.

Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolay Andreyevich (1844-1908), Russian composer and musical theorist, one of the greatest composers of the Russian nationalist school, and a great master of orchestration. Rimsky-Korsakov is remembered today more for the freshness and brilliance of his instrumentation than for the originality of his musical ideas. His influence as an orchestrator was exercised directly on his pupils, notably the Russian composers Igor Stravinsky and Aleksandr Glazunov, and indirectly through his treatise The Foundations of Instrumentation, published posthumously in 1913. Among Rimsky-Korsakov's works are the operas Snegurochka (Snow Maiden, 1880-81) and Le coq d'Or (The Golden Cockerel, 1906-7) and the symphonic works Capriccio Espagnol (1887), Scheherazade (1888), and the Russian Easter Overture (1888).

Rubinstein, Artur (1887-1982), American pianist, best known as an interpreter of the romantic composers, especially of Frederic Chopin.

Saint-saens, (Charles) Camille (1835-1921), French composer, pianist, and organist, born in Paris. His most famous work was the opera Samson et Dalila (1877). His music, which is written in the classical French tradition, is elegant and precise in detail and form and combines the lyrical style common to 19th-century French music with a more formal quality. He composed five piano concertos (all first performed by himself) and three violin concertos. Among his other works are the symphonic poems Le rouet d'Omphale (Omphale's Spinning Wheel, 1871) and Danse Macabre (1874), the Third Symphony in E-flat Minor (1886), and the suite for orchestra with two pianos, Le carnaval des animaux (Carnival of the Animals, 1886). Gabriel Faurй was one of his pupils.

Scarlatti, Alessandro (1659-1725), Italian composer, who helped to establish the Neapolitan style of opera that dominated 18th-century music. His earliest known opera, L'errore innocente, was produced in Rome in 1679. In 1684 a more important work, Pompeo, was performed in Naples. Scarlatti was one of the first opera composers to strongly differentiate the singing styles of aria and recitative. His opera overtures established the Neapolitan overture type, which has three movements, in fast, slow, and fast tempos. His cantatas, numbering more than 600, introduced many advanced harmonic procedures to the musical vocabulary of the time.

Schubert, Franz Peter (1797-1828), Austrian composer, whose songs are among romantic masterpieces in that genre and whose instrumental works reflect a classical heritage as well as 19th-century romanticism. His reputation as the father of German lieder (“art songs”) rests on a body of more than 600 songs. His best known works include the song cycle Die Schone Mullerin (The Miller's Beautiful Daughter,1823), the Octet and Songs from Sir Walter Scott (1824), the song cycle Die Winterreise (Winter's Journey, 1827), The Seventh Symphony in C Major, the Mass in E-flat Major, the String Quintet in C major, piano sonatas, and his greatest collection of songs, Schwanengesang (Swan Song, 1828).

Schumann, Robert Alexander (1810-56), German composer, a principal figure of the early romantic movement in 19th-century music. Schumann's piano works are largely musical expressions of literary themes and moods. With the exception of the Fantasy in C Major (1836) and Etudes Symphoniques (1854), his best piano compositions consist of cycles of short pieces in which a single lyrical idea is brought to completion within a small framework. In addition to Carnaval, they include Papillons (Butterflies, 1820-31), Kinderscenen (Scenes from Childhood, 1838), Kreisleriana (1838), and Album fur die Jugend (Album for the Young, 1848). Although Schumann rarely achieved in his larger works the unity of form found in his songs and piano pieces, they do contain much that is beautiful and dramatic. This is particularly true of the First Symphony (1841), Piano Quintet (1842), Piano Concerto (1845), Second Symphony (1846), and Piano Trio (1847). Among his other compositions are a choral work, Das Paradies und die Peri (Paradise and the Peri, 1843), and an unsuccessful opera, Genoveva (1847-48).

Scriabin, Alexander Nikolayevich (1872-1915), Russian composer and pianist, whose music is characterized by great rhythmic complexity and innovative harmonies. Scriabin, greatly influenced by theosophy, envisioned a synthesis of all the arts in the service of religion. He attempted to prove the relationship between tone and color by inventing a clavier а lumiиres, or color keyboard, which would project on a screen colors supposedly corresponding to musical tones. It was never built, and his orchestral tone poem Prometheus, The Poem of Fire (1910), was performed with simple color slides. Scriabin abandoned traditional harmony for his own system based on a so-called mystic chord built entirely on intervals of a fourth: C F-sharp B-flat E A D. His works include ten piano sonatas; his third symphony, The Divine Poem (1903); and The Poem of Ecstasy (1908), for orchestra.

Sullivan, Sir Arthur Seymour (1842-1900), English composer, known for his comic operas written in collaboration with the English playwright Sir William S. Gilbert. Sullivan's first comic opera, Cox and Box (1867), revealed a notable talent for this medium. In 1871 he met Gilbert, and the two men entered into a remarkable collaboration that lasted 25 years. Together they produced 14 comic operas, including Trial by Jury (1875), H.M.S. Pinafore (1878), The Pirates of Penzance (1879), The Mikado (1885), The Yeomen of the Guard (1888), and The Gondoliers (1889).

Smetana, Bedrich (1824-84), Czech composer, the founder of the Czech national school, and, with his compatriot Antonin Dvorak, its greatest representative in the 19th century. Smetana fashioned his music, particularly his rich melodic style, on the folk songs and dances of his country and portrayed Czech national life in such works as his comic opera The Bartered Bride (1866) and the cycle of six symphonic poems My Country (1874-79).

Strauss, Johann (the Younger) (1825-1899), born in Vienna. He made his first appearance conducting his own orchestra at the age of 19. After the death of the elder Strauss, he united his group with the orchestra his father had made famous. His many tours through Europe and a visit to the United States in 1872 featured his own dance music, especially his waltzes. Strauss composed such famous waltzes as “An der schonen, blauen Donau” (The Blue Danube, 1867), “Geschichten aus dem Wienerwald” (Tales from the Vienna Woods, 1868), “Rosen aus dem Suden” (Roses from the South, 1880), and “Fruhlingsstimmen” (Voices of Spring, 1883). Between 1871 and 1897 he composed 16 stage works for Viennese theaters, of which the best known today are the operettas Die Fledermaus (The Bat, 1874) and Der Zigeunerbaron (The Romani, or Gypsy, Baron, 1885). His two brothers, Josef Strauss and Eduard Strauss, often substituted as conductors of his orchestra and also composed many dance pieces.

Strauss, Richard (1864-1949), German composer and conductor, a leading composer for the modern orchestra and a master of composing for the human voice. Strauss made his notable contribution to the repertory of program music. He developed the symphonic poem to a high degree and utilized the leitmotiv system (the use of recurrent themes with specified extramusical associations) that was developed by the German composer Richard Wagner. He also made innovations in harmony and instrumentation, greatly expanding the expressive possibilities of the modern symphony orchestra. These works included Don Juan (1888), Macbeth (1890), Tod und Verklarung (Death and Transfiguration, 1890), Till Eulenspiegels lustige Streiche (Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks, 1895), Also sprach Zarathustra (Thus Spoke Zarathustra, 1896), Don Quixote (1897), and Ein Heldenleben (A Hero's Life, 1898). To the third period (1904-49) belong the operas, considered among the most important of the 20th century. After the production of his first successful opera, Salome (1905), Strauss formed a partnership with the Austrian poet and librettist Hugo von Hofmannsthal, with whom he produced his finest operas, including Elektra (1909); Der Rosenkavalier (1911); Ariadne auf Naxos (1912; revised 1916); Die Frau ohne Schatten (The Woman without a Shadow, 1919); Die aegyptische Helena (The Egyptian Helen, 1928); and Arabella (1933). After Hofmannsthal's death, Strauss produced operas with other librettists, though none so successfully. These include Die schweigsame Frau (The Silent Woman, 1935), Daphne (1938), and Capriccio (1942). Strauss also composed more than 100 songs; some of them, such as “Zueignung” (Dedication, 1882-83) and “Morgen” (Morning, 1893-94), are of the finest quality. His other works include the ballet Josephslegende (Legend of Joseph, 1914), the symphonic works Symphonia domestica (1904) and Eine Alpensinfonie (Alpine Symphony, 1915), and Vier letzte Lieder (Four Last Songs, 1948).

Tchaikovsky, Peter Ilich (1840-1893), Russian composer, the foremost of the 19th century. Many Tchaikovsky compositions — among them The Nutcracker (ballet and suite, 1891-1892), the Piano Concerto no. 2 in G Major (1880), the String Quartet no. 3 in E-flat Minor (1876), and the Trio in A Minor for Violin, Cello, and Piano (1882)—have remained popular with concertgoers. His most popular works are characterized by richly melodic passages in which sections suggestive of profound melancholy frequently alternate with dancelike movements derived from folk music. Like his contemporary, Russian composer Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov, Tchaikovsky was an exceptionally gifted orchestrator; his ballet scores in particular contain many striking effects of orchestral coloration. His symphonic works, popular for their melodic content, are also strong (and often unappreciated) in their abstract thematic development. In his best operas, such as Eugene Onegin and The Queen of Spades, he used highly suggestive melodic passages to depict a dramatic situation concisely and with poignant effect. His ballets, notably Swan Lake and The Sleeping Beauty, have never been surpassed for their melodic intensity and instrumental brilliance. Composed in close collaboration with choreographer Marius Petipa, they represent virtually the first use of serious dramatic music for the dance since the operatic ballet of German composer Christoph Willibald Gluck. Tchaikovsky also extended the range of the symphonic poem, and his works in this genre, including Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet, are notable for their richly melodic evocation of the moods of the literary works on which they are based.

Verdi, Giuseppe (1813-1901), Italian operatic composer, whose works stand among the greatest in the history of Italian opera. Operas written in the middle of Verdi's career, including Un ballo in maschera (A Masked Ball, 1859), La forza del destino (The Force of Destiny, 1862), and Don Carlo (1867), exhibit a greater mastery of musical characterization and a greater emphasis on the role of the orchestra than his earlier works. Aida (1871), also of this period and probably Verdi's most popular opera, was commissioned by the khedive of Egypt to celebrate the opening of the Suez Canal; it was first performed in Cairo. In his 70s, Verdi produced the supreme expression of his genius, Otello (1887), composed to a libretto skillfully adapted by the Italian composer and librettist Arrigo Boito from the Shakespearean tragedy Othello. This was followed by Verdi's last opera, Falstaff (1893), also adapted by Boito from Shakespeare, and generally considered one of the greatest of all comic operas. In general, Verdi's works are most noted for their emotional intensity, tuneful melodies, and dramatic characterizations. He transformed the Italian opera, with its traditional set pieces, old-fashioned librettos, and emphasis on vocal displays, into a unified musical and dramatic entity. His operas are among those most frequently produced in the world today.

Vivaldi, Antonio (1678-1741), Italian composer and violinist, the most influential of his age. Vivaldi's concertos provided a model for this genre throughout Europe, affecting the style even of his older contemporaries. Over 300 of his concertos are solo concertos (220 for violin, others for bassoon, cello, oboe, and flute). Others are concerti grossi, 25 for two solo violins and 32 for three or more instruments. A few are ripieno concertos (for orchestra without soloists).

Wagner, (Wilhelm) Richard (1813-83), German composer and musical theorist, one of the most influential figures of 19th-century Europe. Wagner's reputation is based on his musical creations, which represent the highest expression of romanticism in European music, and also on the revolution he effected in both the theory and practice of operatic composition. He began his career as a composer of opera in the conventional manner, but by the time he started work on Der Ring des Nibelungen he was creating an entirely new musico-dramatic form. Pre-Wagnerian opera had become little more than a succession of stereotyped arias, recitatives, duets, interludes, and finales. A fundamental principle of the music drama is the subservience of all the arts involved, including music, to the dramatic needs of the story. By means of the leitmotiv, or leading motive, a continuous thematic development is achieved. The complex evolutions of each leitmotiv and its intertwinings with others underline the emotional meaning of the drama. The increased dramatic unity of post-Wagnerian opera was one consequence of the tremendous influence of his art on every form of music. Among his best-known operatic works are Tannhäuser (1845), Lohengrin (1845), Der Ring Des Nibelungen (1848), Die Walkure (1856), Parsifal (1882).