- •Topic 8: semantic redundancy of oral messages. Interpreter's note–taking
- •8.1. Semantic Redundancy as one of the Main Properties of Oral Discourse
- •8.2. Ways of Ensuring Semantic Redundancy of Oral Messages
- •8.3. Semantic Redundancy: Recommendations for Interpreters
- •8.4. Interpreter's Note–taking
- •Basic interpetation and linguistic terms used in topic 8
- •How the Zero was Discovered
- •Legacy of death, bad health lingers from Chornobyl blast
- •Topic 9: lexical aspects of interpretation
- •9.1. The Notion of the “Focus of Meaning”
- •9.2. Subject Field Terms: Ways of Interpreting Them
- •9.3. Clichés and Idioms as an Interpretation Problem
- •9.4. “Troublemaking” Lexical Units: Numerals, Proper Names, Specific Items of the National Lexicon, Abbreviations, Acronyms and “Misleading Words”
- •Basic interpretation and linguistic terms used in topic 9
- •Blood-sucking leeches popular for treatments
- •Topic 10: "gaps" in perception of oral discourse and ways of "filling them in" in interpreting
- •10.1. The Notion of "Gaps" in Perceiving Original Texts
- •10.2. Phonological "Gaps"
- •10.3. Lexical "Gaps"
- •10.4. Grammatical "Gaps"
- •10.5. Ways of Filling in the "Gaps" in Interpreting
- •10.6. Ways of Fighting Phonological Complications
- •Caused by Accents and Dialects
- •Basic interpretation and linguistic terms used in topic 10
- •Topic 11: problems of translating idioms
- •11.1. Knowing Idioms is the Way to Speak Like a Native
- •11.2. Grammatical Nature of Idioms
- •11.3. Etymology of Idioms
- •11.4. How to Learn Idioms and Practice Them
- •American English Idioms
- •Tricky translations
- •In the text below you will find various word combinations using the word “job”. Their translations into Ukrainian follow in brackets:
- •Looking for a job
- •Topic 12: levels and components of interpretation. Interpreter’s challenges. Conference interpreting
- •12.1. Communication during Two-way Interpretation
- •Interpreter
- •12.2. Two Levels of Interpretation
- •12.3. Triad of Interpretation Process
- •12.4. Specifics and Situations in Interpreting Process
- •12.5. Factor of Time
- •One monument to two events: Christianization, municipal rights
- •Topic 13: precision and basis information, their distinctions and importance for interpretation adequacy
- •13.1. Constituents of Precision and Basis Information
- •13.2. Rendering pi in the Process of Interpretation
- •13.3. Undesirable Situations of Two-way Interpretation. Interpretation Pitfalls and Traps – How to Avoid Them
- •The Brain’s Response to Nicotine
- •The Braine Response to Methamphetamine
- •Why I am a Pilot
- •Topic 14: characteristic peculiarities of professional interpretation
- •14.1. Intellectual Requirements
- •14.2. Requirements to Interpretation Adequacy
- •14.3. Memory and Interpretation
- •Organic farming takes root in countryside as people seek healthier food alternatives
- •Topic 15: analysis and synthesis during
- •Interpretation process
- •15.1. Two Stages of Interpretation Process
- •15.2. Understanding and Extraction of Meaningful Units
- •15.3. Hearing and the Types of Noises
- •15.4. Guess and Intuition
- •15.5. To See a Speaker
- •15.6. Automatism of Synthesis
- •15.7. Complicated is Simpler
- •15.8. Interpretation Typology
- •15.9. Constituents of Training Interpretation
- •15.10. Constituents of Real Interpretation and Ways of Achieving Adequacy
- •15.11. Subtypes of Professional Interpretation
- •Give English/Ukrainian interpretation on sight of the following trext: The Price of Progress
- •Give two-way interpretation of the following texts:
- •Topic 16: ability to hear as the basic requirement to understanding
- •16.1. Hearing
The Brain’s Response to Nicotine
Where observation is concerned chance favors only the prepared mind.
(Louis Pasteur 1822-1895)
Hi, my name’s Sara Bellum. Welcome to my magazine series exploring the brain’s response to drugs. In this issue, we’ll investigate the fascinating facts about nicotine. Some of this information was only recently discovered by leading scientists.
For centuries, people have chewed and smoked tobacco, which comes from the plant nicotiana tabacum. The reason tobacco is used by so many people is because it contains a powerful drug known as nicotine.
When tobacco is smoked, nicotine is absorbed by the lungs and quickly moved into the bloodstream, where it is circulated throughout the brain. All of this happens very rapidly. In fact, nicotine reaches the brain within 8 secondsafter someone inhales tobacco smoke. Nicotine can also enter the blood stream through the mucous membranes that line the mouth (if tobacco is chewed) or nose (if snuff is used), and even through the skin.
Nicotine affects the entire body. Nicotine acts directly on the heart to change heart rate and blood pressure. It also acts on the nerves that control respiration to change breathing patterns. In high concentrations, nicotine is deadly, in fact one drop of purified nicotine on the tongue will kill a person. It’s so lethal that it has been used as a pesticide for centuries.
So why do people smoke? Because nicotine acts in the brain where it can stimulate feelings of pleasure.
Your brain is made up of billions of nerve cells. They communicate by releasing chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. Each neurotransmitter is like a key that fits into a special “lock”, called a receptor, located on the surface of nerve cells. When a neurotransmitter finds its receptor, it activates the receptor’s nerve cell.
The nicotine molecule is shaped like a transmitter called acetylcholine. Acetylcholine and its receptors are involved in many functions, including muscle movement, breathing, heart rate, learning, and memory. They also cause the release of other neurotransmitters and hormones that affect your mood, appetite, memory, and more. When nicotine gets into the brain, it attaches to acetylcholine receptors and mimics the actions of acetylcholine.
Nicotine also activates areas of the brain that are involved in producing feelings of pleasure and reward. Recently, scientists discovered that nicotine raises the levels of a neurotransmitter called dopamine in the parts of the brain that produce feelings of pleasure and reward. Dopamine, which is sometimes called the pleasure molecule, is the same neurotransmitter that is involved in addictions to other drugs such as cocaine and heroin. Researchers now believe that this change in dopamine may play a key role in all addictions. This may help explain why it is so hard for people to stop smoking.
Easy to start, hard to quit
Did you know that nicotine is as addictive as heroin or cocaine? If someone uses nicotine again and again, such as by smoking cigarettes or cigars or chewing tobacco, his or her body develops tolerance, he or she needs more drug to get the same effect. Eventually, a person can become addicted. Once a person becomes addicted, it is extremely deifficult to quit. People who start smoking before the age of 21 have the hardest time quitting, and fewer than 1 in 10 people who try to quit smoking succeed.
When nicotine addicts stop smoking they may suffer from restlessness, hunger, depression, headaches, and other uncomfortable feelings. These are called “withdrawal symptoms” because they happen when nicotine is withdrawn from the body.
Withdrawal may be bad, but long-term smoking can be much worse. It raises your blood preassure, dulls your senses of smell and taste, reduces your stamina, and wrinkles your skin. More dangerously, long-term smoking can lead to fatal heart attacks, strokes, emphysema, and cancer.
You may be surprised to learn that tobacco use causes far more illnesses and death than all other addicting drugs combined. One out every six deaths in the United States is a result of smoking.
But even when faced with risk of death, many people keep using tobacco because they are addicted to nicotine. Believe it or not, half of the smokers who have heart attacks keep smoking, even though their doctor warns them to stop. That’s a strong addiction!
Smokeless tobacco also has harmful effects. Chewing tobacco can cause damage to gum tissue and even loss of teeth. It also reduces a person’s ability to taste and smell. Most importantly, smokeless tobacco contains cancer causing-chemicals that can cause cancer of the mouth, pharynx, larynx, and esophagus. This can even happen in very young users of chewing tobacco. In fact, most people who develop these cancers were users of chewing tobacco.