- •English for medical students
- •Preface
- •Medicine as a science. Branches of medicine
- •Branches of medicine
- •Basic sciences
- •Diagnostic specialties
- •Clinical disciplines
- •Human organism human anatomy
- •The cell
- •Properties of cells:
- •Cell membrane: a cell's protective coat
- •Cytoskeleton: a cell's scaffold
- •Genetic material
- •Organelles
- •Cell nucleus (a cell's information center)
- •Ribosomes (the protein production machine)
- •Mitochondria and Chloroplasts (the power generators)
- •Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus (macromolecule managers)
- •Lysosomes and Peroxisomes (the cellular digestive system)
- •Centrioles
- •Vacuoles
- •The tissue
- •Human organ systems
- •The anatomical position
- •Relative directions
- •Median and sagittal plane
- •Coronal plane
- •Transverse plane
- •Special cases
- •Body cavities
- •Digestive system
- •Introduction
- •Ingestion
- •Digestion: stomach
- •Digestion and absorption: small intestine
- •Absorption: large intestine
- •Answer the questions
- •Ulcerative colitis
- •Urinary system
- •Introduction
- •Kidneys: location and structure
- •Kidneys: function
- •Urine production
- •Answer the questions
- •Cystitis
- •Reproductive system
- •Introduction
- •Male reproductive organs
- •Female reproductive organs
- •Development of sex cells
- •Answer the questions
- •Vaginismus
- •Prostatitis
- •Nervous system
- •Introduction
- •Cns: neurons, brain, spinal cord
- •Pns: somatic (voluntary) nervous system, autonomic (involuntary) nervous system
- •Sense organs
- •Answer the questions
- •Ischemic stroke
- •Immediate treatment
- •Cardiovascular system
- •Introduction
- •Components of blood
- •How blood clots
- •How red blood cells carry oxygen
- •Blood pressure
- •The heart (the pump)
- •Answer the questions
- •Mitral stenosis
- •Respiratory system
- •Introduction
- •Lungs and air passages
- •Gas exchange
- •Respiration
- •Answer the questions
- •Lymphatic system
- •Introduction
- •Capillary hydrostatic pressure: fluid diffusion and reabsorption
- •Lymph vessels
- •Lymph organs: nodes, nodules, spleen, thymus gland, tonsils
- •Answer the questions
- •Lymphadenitis and lymphangitis
- •Skeletal system
- •Introduction
- •Axial skeleton
- •Appendicular skeleton
- •Ossification and reconstruction
- •Bone marrow
- •Answer the questions
- •Osteoarthritis
- •Muscular system
- •Introduction
- •Cardiac muscle
- •Smooth muscle
- •Skeletal muscle
- •Muscle fibers and exercise
- •Answer the questions
- •Myasthenia gravis
- •Skin (integumentary system)
- •Introduction
- •Skin: epidermal layers
- •Skin: dermal layers
- •Sudoriferous (sweat) and sebaceous (oil) glands
- •Hair and nails
- •Skin color
- •Answer the questions
- •Endocrine system
- •Introduction
- •Glands and neural components
- •Homeostatic feedback mechanisms
- •Pituitary gland
- •Thyroid gland
- •Adrenal glands
- •Ovaries and testes
- •Answer the questions
- •Type 1 diabetes
- •Insulin
- •Vascular disease
- •I. What is cancer?
- •II. Terminology of cancer
- •III. History of oncology
- •IV. Oncological diseases
- •1. Laryngeal cancer
- •Symptoms:
- •Diagnosis:
- •Treatment:
- •2. Lung cancer
- •Causes:
- •Symptoms:
- •Diagnosis:
- •Treatment:
- •3. Colon cancer
- •Causes, incidence, and risk factors:
- •Symptoms:
- •Signs and tests:
- •Treatment:
- •4. Brain tumor
- •Causes, incidence, and risk factors:
- •Symptoms:
- •Signs and tests:
- •Treatment :
- •Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
- •I. Diagnostic radiology
- •II. Therapeutic radiology
- •III. Interventional radiology
- •Answer the questions
- •Pharmacology
- •For the gastrointestinal tract or digestive system
- •For the cardiovascular system
- •For the central nervous system
- •For musculo-skeletal disorders
- •Why we need vitamins
- •Vitamin deficiencies
- •Analgesics
- •Paracetamol and nsaiDs
- •Opiates and morphinomimetics
- •Combinations
- •Topical or systemic
- •Psychotropic agents
- •Addiction
- •Antibiotics
- •Side effects
- •Antibiotic resistance
- •Vaccines
- •Origin of vaccines
- •Developing immunity
- •Potential for adverse side effects in general
- •Answer the questions
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 1
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 2
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 3
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 4
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 5
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 6
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 7
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 8
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 9
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 10
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 11
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 12
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 13
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 14
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 15
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 16
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 17
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 18
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 19
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 20
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 21
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 22
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 23
Hair and nails
Hair is composed of cornified threads of cells that develop from the epidermis and cover most of the body. Each hair has a medulla, cortex, and cuticle. The medulla in the center contains soft keratin and air. The cortex, the innermost thickest layer, has the pigment that gives hair color. The cuticle, the outermost layer, has cells that overlap like scales. Both the cuticle and cortex have hard keratin.
The hair root in a hair follicle is embedded beneath the skin. The hair shaft protrudes from the skin. Hair sheds and is replaced constantly during growth and rest phases. Hair has a protective function: eyebrows keep sweat from running into the eyes, nose and ear hairs filter dust from the air, and scalp hairs protect against abrasion and overexposure to sun rays.
Hair follicles extend into the dermis; the deep ends expanded parts are called hair bulbs. A papilla (connective tissue protrusion that contains capillaries) protrudes into the hair bulb and provides nutrients for the growing hair. The hair follicle walls have an inner epithelial root sheath and an outer dermal root sheath. The epithelial root sheath has an inner and an outer layer that thins as it approaches the hair bulb. It becomes the matrix, the actively growing part of the hair bulb that produces the hair.
Arrector pili muscles are smooth muscle cells attached to hair follicles. When they contract, they pull the hair into an upright position, causing skin dimples (goose bumps). The nervous system regulates these muscles; cold temperatures or fright can activate them.
Hair development begins in the third fetal month. By the fifth month, lanugo (thin hair) covers the fetus. At 5 months, lanugo disappears from every area except the scalp and eyebrows where coarser hair replaces it. Vellus (a film of delicate hair) eventually covers the rest of the body. Terminal hair is the early coarse scalp and eyebrow hair and later armpit and genital hair that grow during puberty. No new hair follicles develop after birth.
Like hair, nails develop from the epidermis. These hard plates of keratinized cells are at the ends of fingers and toes. Nails appear pink because their translucency reveals the vascular tissue beneath. They aid in grasping objects, scratching, and protecting fingers and toes.
The components of the nail are the lunula, body, root, and free edge. The lunula is the white half-moon shaped part at the nail base. Both the body and free edge region that overhangs the end of the finger or toe are visible. The nail rests on the thick layer of epithelial skin called the nail bed. The root is hidden under skin folds. Under the root lies the matrix (thick layer of skin). Eponychium (thin layer of epithelium) covers the nail during development; in the adult, it remains at the nail base only and is called the cuticle. The hyponychium is the epithelium of the nail bed.
Skin color
Skin color results from the presence of melanin, carotene (yellow to orange pigment), and underlying blood reflected through skin. Melanin keeps excessive ultraviolet rays from burning the skin. Exposure to sunlight causes the skin to produce more melanin, causing suntan, a temporary change in skin color. Melanin-rich cells continually move toward the surface, where they are sloughed. Too much sun is dangerous to skin; it increases the risk of cancer by affecting the genetic material of cells.
Variety of skin color is caused mainly by the number and distribution of melanocytes. Darker skin has more melanin that is produced by more melanocytes. However, the different skin colors among individuals and races do not reflect different numbers of melanocytes; instead, they show different kinds and amounts of melanin production by melanocytes. Oriental skin has a greater amount of carotene in the stratum corneum, producing a yellowish tinge. Albinism is a condition where skin does not produce melanin.