- •English for medical students
- •Preface
- •Medicine as a science. Branches of medicine
- •Branches of medicine
- •Basic sciences
- •Diagnostic specialties
- •Clinical disciplines
- •Human organism human anatomy
- •The cell
- •Properties of cells:
- •Cell membrane: a cell's protective coat
- •Cytoskeleton: a cell's scaffold
- •Genetic material
- •Organelles
- •Cell nucleus (a cell's information center)
- •Ribosomes (the protein production machine)
- •Mitochondria and Chloroplasts (the power generators)
- •Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus (macromolecule managers)
- •Lysosomes and Peroxisomes (the cellular digestive system)
- •Centrioles
- •Vacuoles
- •The tissue
- •Human organ systems
- •The anatomical position
- •Relative directions
- •Median and sagittal plane
- •Coronal plane
- •Transverse plane
- •Special cases
- •Body cavities
- •Digestive system
- •Introduction
- •Ingestion
- •Digestion: stomach
- •Digestion and absorption: small intestine
- •Absorption: large intestine
- •Answer the questions
- •Ulcerative colitis
- •Urinary system
- •Introduction
- •Kidneys: location and structure
- •Kidneys: function
- •Urine production
- •Answer the questions
- •Cystitis
- •Reproductive system
- •Introduction
- •Male reproductive organs
- •Female reproductive organs
- •Development of sex cells
- •Answer the questions
- •Vaginismus
- •Prostatitis
- •Nervous system
- •Introduction
- •Cns: neurons, brain, spinal cord
- •Pns: somatic (voluntary) nervous system, autonomic (involuntary) nervous system
- •Sense organs
- •Answer the questions
- •Ischemic stroke
- •Immediate treatment
- •Cardiovascular system
- •Introduction
- •Components of blood
- •How blood clots
- •How red blood cells carry oxygen
- •Blood pressure
- •The heart (the pump)
- •Answer the questions
- •Mitral stenosis
- •Respiratory system
- •Introduction
- •Lungs and air passages
- •Gas exchange
- •Respiration
- •Answer the questions
- •Lymphatic system
- •Introduction
- •Capillary hydrostatic pressure: fluid diffusion and reabsorption
- •Lymph vessels
- •Lymph organs: nodes, nodules, spleen, thymus gland, tonsils
- •Answer the questions
- •Lymphadenitis and lymphangitis
- •Skeletal system
- •Introduction
- •Axial skeleton
- •Appendicular skeleton
- •Ossification and reconstruction
- •Bone marrow
- •Answer the questions
- •Osteoarthritis
- •Muscular system
- •Introduction
- •Cardiac muscle
- •Smooth muscle
- •Skeletal muscle
- •Muscle fibers and exercise
- •Answer the questions
- •Myasthenia gravis
- •Skin (integumentary system)
- •Introduction
- •Skin: epidermal layers
- •Skin: dermal layers
- •Sudoriferous (sweat) and sebaceous (oil) glands
- •Hair and nails
- •Skin color
- •Answer the questions
- •Endocrine system
- •Introduction
- •Glands and neural components
- •Homeostatic feedback mechanisms
- •Pituitary gland
- •Thyroid gland
- •Adrenal glands
- •Ovaries and testes
- •Answer the questions
- •Type 1 diabetes
- •Insulin
- •Vascular disease
- •I. What is cancer?
- •II. Terminology of cancer
- •III. History of oncology
- •IV. Oncological diseases
- •1. Laryngeal cancer
- •Symptoms:
- •Diagnosis:
- •Treatment:
- •2. Lung cancer
- •Causes:
- •Symptoms:
- •Diagnosis:
- •Treatment:
- •3. Colon cancer
- •Causes, incidence, and risk factors:
- •Symptoms:
- •Signs and tests:
- •Treatment:
- •4. Brain tumor
- •Causes, incidence, and risk factors:
- •Symptoms:
- •Signs and tests:
- •Treatment :
- •Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
- •I. Diagnostic radiology
- •II. Therapeutic radiology
- •III. Interventional radiology
- •Answer the questions
- •Pharmacology
- •For the gastrointestinal tract or digestive system
- •For the cardiovascular system
- •For the central nervous system
- •For musculo-skeletal disorders
- •Why we need vitamins
- •Vitamin deficiencies
- •Analgesics
- •Paracetamol and nsaiDs
- •Opiates and morphinomimetics
- •Combinations
- •Topical or systemic
- •Psychotropic agents
- •Addiction
- •Antibiotics
- •Side effects
- •Antibiotic resistance
- •Vaccines
- •Origin of vaccines
- •Developing immunity
- •Potential for adverse side effects in general
- •Answer the questions
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 1
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 2
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 3
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 4
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 5
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 6
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
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- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 7
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
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- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 8
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
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- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 9
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
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- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 10
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
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- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 11
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
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- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 12
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
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- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 13
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
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- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 14
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
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- •V. Write test 15
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
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- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 16
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
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- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 17
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
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- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 18
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
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- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 19
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 20
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 21
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 22
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 23
Muscular system
Introduction
Over 600 skeletal muscles function for body movement through contraction and relaxation of voluntary, striated muscle fibers. These muscles are attached to bones, and are typically under conscious control for locomotion, facial expressions, posture, and other body movements. Muscles account for approximately 40 percent of body weight. The metabolism that occurs in this large mass-produces heat essential for the maintenance of body temperature.
Cardiac muscle
Cardiac muscle is only in the heart and makes up the atria and ventricles (heart walls). Like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle contains striated fibers. Cardiac muscle is called involuntary muscle because conscious thought does not control its contractions. Specialized cardiac muscle cells maintain a consistent heart rate.
Smooth muscle
Smooth muscle is throughout the body, including in visceral (internal) organs, blood vessels, and glands. Like cardiac muscle, smooth muscle is involuntary. Unlike skeletal and cardiac muscle, smooth muscle is nonstriated (not banded). Smooth muscle, which is extensively within the walls of digestive tract organs, causes peristalsis (wave-like contractions) that aids in food digestion and transport.
Except the heart, any action that the body performs without conscious thought is done by smooth muscle contractions. This includes diverse activities such as constricting (closing) the bronchioles (air passages) of the lungs or pupils of the eye or causing goosebumps in cold conditions.
Skeletal muscle
A skeletal muscle has regular, ordered groups of fascicles, muscle fibers, myofibrils, and myofilaments. Epimysium (thick connective tissue) binds groups of fascicles together. A fascicle has muscle fibers; perimysium (connective tissue) envelops the fascicle. Endomysium (connective tissue) surrounds the muscle fibers.
A muscle fiber divides into even smaller parts. Within each fiber are strands of myofibrils. These long cylindrical structures appear striped due to strands of tiny myofilaments. Myofilaments have two types of protein: actin (thin myofilaments) and myosin (thick myofilaments).
The actin and myosin myofilaments align evenly, producing dark and light bands on the myofibril. Each dark band depicts an area where the myofilaments overlap, causing the striated appearance of skeletal muscle.
All dark and light bands of the myofilaments have names. At the Z-line, actin strands interweave. The region between two Z-lines is a sarcomere, the functional unit of skeletal muscle. Muscle contraction occurs when overlapping actin and myosin myofilaments overlap further and shorten the muscle cell. The myofilaments keep their length. The overlapping of myofilaments is the basis for the sliding filament theory of contraction.
Skeletal muscle is a system of pairs that relax and contract to move a joint. For example, when front leg muscles contract, the knee extends (straightens) while back leg muscles relax. Conversely, to flex (bend) the knee, back leg muscles contract while front leg muscles relax. Some muscles are named for their ability to extend or flex a joint; for example, extensor carpiradialis longus muscle and flexor digitorum brevis muscle.
Tendons attach most skeletal muscles to bones. Tendons are strong sheets of connective tissue that are identical with ligaments. Tendons and ligaments differ in function only: tendons attach muscle to bone and ligaments attach bone to bone. Physical exercise strengthens the attachment of tendons to bones.
Skeletal muscles have muscle tone (remain partly contracted), which helps maintain body posture. Ongoing signals from the nervous system to the muscle cells help maintain tone and readiness for physical activity.
Skeletal muscle aids in heat generation. During muscle contractions, muscle cells expend much energy, most of which is converted to heat. To prevent overheating, glands in the skin produce sweat to cool the skin; and, the body radiates heat from the blood and tissues through the skin. When the body is chilly, shivering causes quick muscle contractions that generate heat.