- •English for medical students
- •Preface
- •Medicine as a science. Branches of medicine
- •Branches of medicine
- •Basic sciences
- •Diagnostic specialties
- •Clinical disciplines
- •Human organism human anatomy
- •The cell
- •Properties of cells:
- •Cell membrane: a cell's protective coat
- •Cytoskeleton: a cell's scaffold
- •Genetic material
- •Organelles
- •Cell nucleus (a cell's information center)
- •Ribosomes (the protein production machine)
- •Mitochondria and Chloroplasts (the power generators)
- •Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus (macromolecule managers)
- •Lysosomes and Peroxisomes (the cellular digestive system)
- •Centrioles
- •Vacuoles
- •The tissue
- •Human organ systems
- •The anatomical position
- •Relative directions
- •Median and sagittal plane
- •Coronal plane
- •Transverse plane
- •Special cases
- •Body cavities
- •Digestive system
- •Introduction
- •Ingestion
- •Digestion: stomach
- •Digestion and absorption: small intestine
- •Absorption: large intestine
- •Answer the questions
- •Ulcerative colitis
- •Urinary system
- •Introduction
- •Kidneys: location and structure
- •Kidneys: function
- •Urine production
- •Answer the questions
- •Cystitis
- •Reproductive system
- •Introduction
- •Male reproductive organs
- •Female reproductive organs
- •Development of sex cells
- •Answer the questions
- •Vaginismus
- •Prostatitis
- •Nervous system
- •Introduction
- •Cns: neurons, brain, spinal cord
- •Pns: somatic (voluntary) nervous system, autonomic (involuntary) nervous system
- •Sense organs
- •Answer the questions
- •Ischemic stroke
- •Immediate treatment
- •Cardiovascular system
- •Introduction
- •Components of blood
- •How blood clots
- •How red blood cells carry oxygen
- •Blood pressure
- •The heart (the pump)
- •Answer the questions
- •Mitral stenosis
- •Respiratory system
- •Introduction
- •Lungs and air passages
- •Gas exchange
- •Respiration
- •Answer the questions
- •Lymphatic system
- •Introduction
- •Capillary hydrostatic pressure: fluid diffusion and reabsorption
- •Lymph vessels
- •Lymph organs: nodes, nodules, spleen, thymus gland, tonsils
- •Answer the questions
- •Lymphadenitis and lymphangitis
- •Skeletal system
- •Introduction
- •Axial skeleton
- •Appendicular skeleton
- •Ossification and reconstruction
- •Bone marrow
- •Answer the questions
- •Osteoarthritis
- •Muscular system
- •Introduction
- •Cardiac muscle
- •Smooth muscle
- •Skeletal muscle
- •Muscle fibers and exercise
- •Answer the questions
- •Myasthenia gravis
- •Skin (integumentary system)
- •Introduction
- •Skin: epidermal layers
- •Skin: dermal layers
- •Sudoriferous (sweat) and sebaceous (oil) glands
- •Hair and nails
- •Skin color
- •Answer the questions
- •Endocrine system
- •Introduction
- •Glands and neural components
- •Homeostatic feedback mechanisms
- •Pituitary gland
- •Thyroid gland
- •Adrenal glands
- •Ovaries and testes
- •Answer the questions
- •Type 1 diabetes
- •Insulin
- •Vascular disease
- •I. What is cancer?
- •II. Terminology of cancer
- •III. History of oncology
- •IV. Oncological diseases
- •1. Laryngeal cancer
- •Symptoms:
- •Diagnosis:
- •Treatment:
- •2. Lung cancer
- •Causes:
- •Symptoms:
- •Diagnosis:
- •Treatment:
- •3. Colon cancer
- •Causes, incidence, and risk factors:
- •Symptoms:
- •Signs and tests:
- •Treatment:
- •4. Brain tumor
- •Causes, incidence, and risk factors:
- •Symptoms:
- •Signs and tests:
- •Treatment :
- •Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
- •I. Diagnostic radiology
- •II. Therapeutic radiology
- •III. Interventional radiology
- •Answer the questions
- •Pharmacology
- •For the gastrointestinal tract or digestive system
- •For the cardiovascular system
- •For the central nervous system
- •For musculo-skeletal disorders
- •Why we need vitamins
- •Vitamin deficiencies
- •Analgesics
- •Paracetamol and nsaiDs
- •Opiates and morphinomimetics
- •Combinations
- •Topical or systemic
- •Psychotropic agents
- •Addiction
- •Antibiotics
- •Side effects
- •Antibiotic resistance
- •Vaccines
- •Origin of vaccines
- •Developing immunity
- •Potential for adverse side effects in general
- •Answer the questions
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 1
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 2
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
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- •V. Write test 3
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- •V. Write test 4
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
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- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 5
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
- •II. Do basic exercises
- •III. Do additional exercises
- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 6
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
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- •V. Write test 7
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- •V. Write test 8
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- •V. Write test 9
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- •V. Write test 10
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- •V. Write test 11
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- •V. Write test 12
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- •V. Write test 13
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- •V. Write test 14
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- •V. Write test 15
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- •V. Write test 16
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- •V. Write test 17
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- •V. Write test 18
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- •V. Write test 19
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
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- •V. Write test 20
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
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- •IV. Get ready for the test
- •V. Write test 21
- •I. Learn new combining forms and their meanings
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- •V. Write test 22
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- •V. Write test 23
Human organism human anatomy
From a utilitarian point of view the study of humans is the most important division of special anatomy, and this human anatomy may be approached from different points of view.
From that of Medicine it consists of a knowledge of the exact form, position, size and relationship of the various structures of the healthy human body, and to this study the term descriptive or topographical human anatomy is given, though it is often, less happily, spoken of as anthropotomy.
So intricate is the human body that only a small number of professional human anatomists, after years of patient observation, are complete masters of all its details; most of them specialize on certain parts, such as the brain or viscera, contenting themselves with a good working knowledge of the rest.
Topographical anatomy must be learned by repeated dissection and inspection of dead human bodies. It is no more a science than a pilot's knowledge is, and, like that knowledge, must be exact and available in moments of emergency.
From the morphological point of view, however, human anatomy is a scientific and fascinating study, having for its object the discovery of the causes which have brought about the existing structure of humans, and needing a knowledge of the allied sciences of embryology or developmental biology, phylogeny, and histology.
Pathological anatomy (or morbid anatomy) is the study of diseased organs, while sections of normal anatomy, applied to various purposes, receive special names such as medical, surgical, gynaecological, artistic and superficial anatomy. The comparison of the anatomy of different races of humans is part of the science of physical anthropology or anthropological anatomy. In the present edition of this work the subject of anatomy is treated systematically rather than topographically. Each anatomical article contains first a description of the structures of an organ or system (such as nerves, arteries, heart, and so forth), as it is found in humans; this is followed by an account of the development (embryology) and comparative anatomy (morphology), as far as vertebrate animals are concerned; but only those parts of the lower animals which are of interest in explaining human body structure are here dealt with. The articles have a twofold purpose; first, to give enough details of structure to make the articles on physiology, surgery, medicine and pathology intelligible; and, secondly, to give the non-expert inquirer, or the worker in some other branch of science, the chief theories on which the modern scientific groundwork of anatomy is built.
Anatomy (from the Greek νατομία anatomia, from νατέμνειν anatemnein, to cut up, cut open), is the branch of biology that deals with the structure and organization of living things. It can be divided into animal anatomy (zootomy) and plant anatomy (phytotomy). Furthermore, anatomy can be covered either regionally or systemically, that is, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest for the former, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systmes for the latter. Major branches of anatomy include comparative anatomy, histology, and human anatomy.
Human anatomy or anthropotomy is a special field within anatomy. It studies gross structures and systems of the human body, leaving the study of tissues to histology and cells to cytology. The human body, like the bodies of all animals, consists of systems, that consist of organs, that consist of tissues, that consist of cells.