- •1. Kinds of nouns
- •2. Gender
- •3. Plurals
- •4. Uncountable nouns
- •5. Possessive case
- •Adjectives
- •1. Kinds of adjectives
- •2. Participles used as adjectives
- •3. Position of adjectives: attributive and predicative use
- •9. Comparison of adjectives
- •Adverbs
- •1. Kinds of adverbs
- •2. Form and use
- •3. Some words are both adjectives and adverbs:
- •4. Comparative and superlative adverb forms
- •5. Constructions with comparisons.
- •6. Position of adverbs
- •3. Uses of the Present Continuous Tense
- •4. Verbs not normally used in the Continuous Tenses
- •5. See, feel, look, smell and taste used in the continuous
- •6. The Continuous and Non-Continuous Uses of Certain Verbs
- •The simple present tense
- •1. Form
- •2. Spelling Notes
- •3. Uses of the Simple Present Tense
- •4. Other Uses of the Simple Present Tense
- •The past and perfect tenses the simple past tense
- •1. Form
- •2. Spelling Notes
- •3. Uses of the Past Simple Tense
- •4. Used to Indicating Past Habit
- •The past continuous tense
- •1. Form
- •2. Main Uses of the Past Continuous Tense
- •3. Other Uses of the Past Continuous Tense
- •The present perfect tense (simple and continuous)
- •1. Form
- •2. The Present Perfect Used for Past Actions Whose Time is not Definite
- •3. The Present Perfect Used for Actions Occurring in an Incomplete Period
- •4. The Present Perfect (Simple and Continuous) Used for Actions and Situations Continuing up to the Present
- •5. Special Structures in the Present Perfect
- •The past perfect tense (simple, continuous)
- •1. Form
- •3. Past and Past Perfect Tenses in Time Clauses.
- •4. Past Perfect Tense in Main Clause
- •The future
- •1. Future Forms
- •2. The simple present used for the future
- •4. The Present Continuous as a Future Form
- •5. The be going to form
- •6. The Future Simple
- •7. The Future Continuous
- •8. The Future Perfect
- •9. The Future Perfect Continuous
- •The passive voice
- •1. Form
- •2. Various Structures Expressed in the Passive
- •3. Active Tenses and Their Passive Equivalents
- •4. Get in the Passive
- •5. Questions in the passive
- •6. Uses of the Passive: Active or Passive
- •7. The Passive is Used:
- •8. Passive Sentences with or without by:
- •9. Passive with the Verbs Having Two Objects
- •10. Special Passive Patterns
- •11. Verbs Which Cannot be Used in the Passive
- •1. Modal Auxiliary Verbs: General
- •2. Modal Auxiliary Verbs With Perfect Infinitives
- •3. Can, could and be able for ability
- •4. May and Can for Permission
- •5. May and Can for Possibility
- •6. Could as an Alternative to May/Might
- •7. Can in Interrogative and Negative Sentences
- •8. Can Used to Express ‘Theoretical Possibility’
- •9. Set Phrases with Can, May, Might
- •10. Must and Have for Deduction and Assumption
- •11. Must and have to: forms
- •12. Difference between have to and have got to Forms
- •13. Difference between must and have to in the Affirmative
- •14. Need not and must not in the Present and Future
- •15. Must, have to and need in the Interrogative
- •17. Needn’t have done Compared with didn’t have/need to do
- •18. Ought and Should for Obligation
- •The infinitive
- •1. Forms
- •2. Infinitive without to
- •3. The Infinitive Represented by its to
- •4. Split Infinitives
- •5. The Infinitive Used as a Connective Link
- •6. Functions of the infinitive
- •7. The Infinitive as Subject of a Sentence
- •8. The Infinitive as Complement of a Verb
- •9. The Infinitive as Object of a Verb
- •10. The Infinitive as Object of an Adjective
- •11. The Infinitive after Interrogative Conjunction
- •12. The Infinitive as Adverbial Modifier
- •A. TheInfinitive as Adverbial Modifier of Purpose
- •B. The Infinitive asAdverbial Modifier of Result
- •13. The Infinitive as Attribute
- •14. Active and Passive Infinitive with Similar Meaning
- •15. Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction
- •16. Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction
- •19. The Infinitive as Parenthesis
- •The gerund
- •1. Form and Use
- •2. Functions of the Gerund
- •3. Verbs Followed by the Gerund
- •Note that:
- •5. Gerunds after Prepositions
- •6. The Verb mind
- •7. Gerunds with Passive Meaning
- •8. The Gerund: Special Cases
- •Infinitive and gerund constructions
- •1. Verbs and Adjectives Which May Take either Infinitive or Gerund
- •M. Accustomed, afraid, ashamed, certain, interested, sorry, sure, used
- •The participles
- •1. The Present (or Active) Participle
- •2. Present Participle after verbs of sensation
- •I saw him enter the room, unlock a drawer, take out a document, photograph it and put it back.
- •4. Go, come, spend, waste, be busy
- •5. A present participle phrase replacing a main clause
- •6. A present participle phrase replacing a subordinate clause
- •7. The perfect participle (active)
- •8. The past participle (passive) and the perfect participle (passive)
- •9. Participles used as adjectives before and after nouns
- •10. Misrelated participles
- •Reported speech
- •1. Main points
- •2. Statements in reported speech 1. If you want to report a statement, you use a ‘that’-clause after certain verbs. The most useful are:
- •Tense changes
- •Indirect speech is usually introduced by a verb in the past tense. Verbs in the reported clause have to be changed into a corresponding ‘more past’ tense.
- •1. Past Simple and Past Continuous in time clauses do not normally change. The verb in the main clause can either remain unchanged or become the past perfect:
- •5. Time and place expressions in reported speech
- •6. Modals in reported speech
- •7. Reported questions
- •8. Questions beginning Shall I/we…? Such questions can be of different types:
- •9. Reported orders/requests/advice/suggestions, etc.
- •14. Let’s, let him/them in indirect speech 1. Let’s usually expresses a suggestion and is reported by suggest in reported speech:
- •15. Exclamations and yes/no
- •16. Reported speech: mixed types
- •Contents
9. Passive with the Verbs Having Two Objects
Many verbs can be followed by two objects, which usually refer to a person and a thing.
The Queen gave a medal to the pilot.
The Queen gave the pilot a medal.
Either a medal or the pilot can be the subject of a passive sentence:
A medal was given to the pilot.
The pilot was given a medal.
More often in such cases the person becomes the subject of the passive verb.
I was given two hours to make my decision.
The workers are paid $200 a week.
You were lent ten thousand pounds last year.
Verbs used like this are: give, lend, send, pay, hand, sell, promise, show, offer, teach, owe, award, grant, allow, leave (in a will) and feed.
10. Special Passive Patterns
A. It is said that.../ He is said to...
We can use this special pattern with verbs of reporting when we do not need to know who is doing the reporting. Sentences of the type People consider/know/think etc. that he is... have two possible passive forms:
It is considered/known/thought etc. that he is...
He is considered/known/thought etc. to be...
The infinitive construction is the more exact of the two. It is chiefly used with to be though other infinitives can sometimes be used:
He is thought to have information which will be useful to the police.
Perfect infinitive is used when the thought concerns a previous action.
People believe that he was =
It was believed that he was or He was believed to be...
People know that he was =
It is known that he was or He is known to have been...
This construction can be used with the perfect infinitive of any verb.
We use this construction after acknowledge, assume, believe, claim, consider, estimate, expect, feel, find, intend, know, presume, report, say, think, understand. With the other verbs in this group (agree, announce, arrange, decide, fear, hope, regret) the that- structure is more common.
B. Supposed to
Sometimes (be) supposed to means ‘said to’:
Let’s go and see that film. It’s supposed to be very good.
(= It is said to be very good; people say that it’s very good.)
He is supposed to have stolen $60. (= He is said to have stolen $60.)
But usually supposed to has an idea of duty and is not therefore the normal equivalent of suppose in the active:
You are supposed to know how to drive = It’s your duty to know.
You can use suppose to to say what is arranged or planned (and this is often different from what really happens).
The train was supposed to arrive at 11.30 but it was 40 minutes late.
You were supposed to clean the windows. Why didn’t you do it?
We use not supposed to to say what is not allowed or not advisable:
You’re not supposed to park here. (=You are not allowed to park here.)
Mr Collins is much better after his illness but he’s still not supposed to do any heavy work.
suppose in the passive can be followed by the present or perfect infinitive of any verb. It may have an idea of duty but very often does not:
You are supposed to have finished = You should have finished
but He is supposed to have escaped = People suppose that he escaped
C. have something done
1. This construction can be used to express more neatly sentences of the type ‘I employed someone to do something for me’; i.e. instead of saying I employed someone to clean my car we can say I had my car cleaned, and instead of I got a man to repair my roof, we can say I had my roof repaired.
The word order is important: the past participle (cleaned/repaired etc.) comes after the object (the car/the roof).
have + object + past participle
Jill had the roof repaired yesterday.
Where did you have your hair done?
We are having the house painted at the moment.
Tom has just had a telephone installed in his flat.
How often do you have your car serviced?
Why don’t you have that coat cleaned?
I want to have my photograph taken.
‘Get something done’ is possible instead of have something done but is more colloquial.
We must get another key made.
2. Have something done sometimes has a different meaning of have something happen (usually by accident or misfortune).
We had our passports stolen.
He had two of his teeth knocked out in the fight.
You can see that if in A above the subject is the person who orders the thing to be done, here the subject is the person who suffers as a result of the action. The subject could be a thing:
The houses had their roofs blown off by the storm.