Uchebnik_lakhotyuk_mikhaylova

4. Guess which languages the words in 2 come from.

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Appendix 5 Make up a story on the basis of the cartoons. Use the following expressions:

to hear a cat approaching a mouse hole;

to hear a sound of an angry dog followed by the silence; to creep out of the hole;

to jump on; to eat up.

Appendix 6 Give a caption to this picture. Which trait of the British Character is meant by it?

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Appendix 6 Crossword Key word of globalization.

If you manage to puzzle a crossword out, you’ll get the key word of a century of globalization (the word down made up of green squares).

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

9

Across

1.I found it very suspicious when she started kind of kissing up to me and without beating about the bush I asked her: “What are you …?” ( 4 letters)

2.The first word, which usually comes to your mind if asked about the British, is “unemotional” and “reserved”, not “….” Nevertheless, there is a collocation “Shakespeare passions”.(10 letters)

3.Equilibrium of the Universe relies upon diversity of … and cultures.(9 letters)

4.… Union uses one currency and lives without borders. The Swiss might go to Italy to do the shopping because it’s cheaper.(8 letters)

5.You might get a very frosty reception if you … the code of local behavioral etiquette.(5 letters)

6.They say that in China race hierarchy is very strong. The Chinese think highly of “the white people”, look down on the black. They believe they are in the middle. They are very …(13 letters without a hyphen)

7.It’s better to stick to the neutral register of a … language because

a)your linguistic feeling might let you down and you might misuse the word;

b)if you use slang words, in such a way you claim to be in the social group you actually don’t belong to. And it might sound ludicrous and appall

people.(7 letters)

8.The French regard … of debates in British Parliament as a sign of political disturbance.(9 letters)

9.Yesterday he came up to me and went: “I didn’t recognize you. You look so beautiful!” He believes it’s a compliment. What a …!(slang word) (5 letters)

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SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

Task 1. Iceberg Theory of Culture. Comment on the model.

Just as nine-tenths of the iceberg is out of sight and below the water line, so is nine-tenths of culture out of conscious awareness. The out-of-awareness part of culture has been termed deep-culture.

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Text 2

English - A Historical Summary

How has English changed over time?

The Old English (OE) period can be regarded as starting around AD 450, with the arrival of West Germanic settlers (Angles, Saxons and Jutes) in southern Britain. They brought with them dialects closely related to the continental language varieties which would produce modern German, Dutch and Frisian. This Germanic basis for English can be seen in much of our everyday vocabulary – compare heart (OE heorte), come (OE cuman) and old (OE eald) with German Herz, kommen and alt. Many grammatical features also date back to this time: irregular verbs such as drink ~ drank ~ drunk (OE drincan ~ dranc ~ (ge)druncen) parallel German trinken ~ trank ~ getrunken. Similarly, many OE pronunciations are preserved in modern spellings e.g. knight (OE cniht, German Knecht), in which k would have been pronounced and gh sounded like ch in Scots loch.

OE, also called Anglo-Saxon, was not heavily influenced by the Celtic languages spoken by the native inhabitants of the British Isles, borrowing only a few words (e.g. brockродник, torскалистая вершина холма)

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associated with local wildlife and geography (but many place and river names e.g. Dover, Avon). However, Latin, introduced to Britain by the Romans, and reinforced in its influence by the conversion of the AngloSaxons to Christianity during the 7th century, had a significant impact, providing both vocabulary (e.g. master, mass, school) and the basis for the writing system. OE was mostly written using the Latin alphabet, supplemented by a few Germanic runic letters to represent sounds not found in Latin e.g. þ, which represented the th sounds in thin or this. (A relic of þ survives as y in modern signs like Ye Olde Tea Shoppe.) The later Viking settlements in many parts of the British Isles also resulted in substantial borrowing of basic vocabulary: sky, get and they derive from Old Norse.

An example of Old English text can be seen in the Start of Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf (manuscript c.1000 AD) .

Norse influence may also have contributed to an important grammatical change, which mainly occurred in English between the 11th and 14th centuries, and which marked the transition to Middle English (ME) (conventionally dated c.1100-1500). OE had indicated many grammatical categories and relationships by attaching inflections (endings) to word roots, in a similar way to Latin or German. Thus, in the OE clause wolde guman findan ‘he wanted to find the man’, the –e on wolde indicates a 3rd person singular subject: ‘he wanted’; the –n on guman indicates that ‘the man’ is the object, not the subject of the verb; and the –an on findan indicates an infinitive: ‘to find’. In ME, changes in the pronunciation of unstressed syllables, mainly occurring at the ends of words, caused most inflections to merge indistinguishably, or be dropped altogether. This inflectional breakdown could have created ambiguity (e.g. wanted man find), but speakers compensated it by using more rigid word order (subject – verb – object, usually), among other strategies.

Another important feature of the early ME period was the influence of Norman (and later, central) French, following the Norman conquest of 1066. French dominance and prestige in such contexts as the royal court, law, the church and education encouraged extensive borrowing of vocabulary e.g. French words for farmed animals pork, beef and mutton (modern French porc, bœuf and mouton) were adopted alongside native words swine, cow and sheep. The borrowed words came to signify only the meat of these animals, mainly eaten by wealthier French speakers, whereas the words inherited from OE came to refer only to the living animals. Norman scribes also influenced the way English was written, respelling words using conventions from French; thus OE оs became ice, cwзn became queen. However, by the 14th and 15th centuries, French influence in Britain had begun to wane, being replaced for many purposes by English.

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An example of Middle English text can be seen in the start of Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales (manuscript early 15th century)

Modern English (ModE) can be regarded externally as starting with the introduction of printing. Caxton’s selection of an East Midlands/London variety of English for the first printed books at the end of the 15th century contributed to the development of a standardised variety of the language, with fixed spelling and punctuation conventions and accepted vocabulary and grammatical forms. The perception of this standard variety as correct, ‘good’ English was also supported by attempts at codification, notably Johnson’s dictionary and many prescriptive grammars of the 18th century. The vocabulary of English was consciously elaborated as it came to be used for an increasing variety of purposes, including translations of classical works rediscovered in the Renaissance, a burgeoning creative literature, and the description of new scientific activities. Thousands of words were borrowed from Latin and Greek in this period e.g. education, metamorphosis, critic, conscious.

An internal feature which characterised the movement towards ModE was the Great Vowel Shift – an important series of linked pronunciation changes which mainly took place between the 15th and 17th centuries. In ME, the sound system had contained broadly corresponding series of long and short vowels, represented in writing by the same letters. For instance, the vowel in caas ‘case’ was simply a longer version of the vowel in blak ‘black’; similarly mete ‘meat’ (long vowel) and hell (short vowel), or fine (long) and pit (short). In early ModE, people began to pronounce the long vowels differently from the corresponding short vowels: long e ended up sounding like long i, leaving a gap in the sound system; this was filled by shifting the pronunciation of long a to sound like long e, and so on. These changes were not reflected in ModE spelling, already largely fixed by standardisation, adding to the disparity between pronunciation and writing which differentiates English today from most other European languages.

An example of early Modern English can be seen in the start of Shakespeare’s Hamlet, First Folio (printed 1623)

The historical influence of language in the British Isles can best be seen in place names and their derivations.

Examples include ac (as in Acton, Oakwood) which is Anglo-Saxon for oak; by (as in Whitby) is Old Norse for farm or village; pwll (as in Liverpool) is Welsh for anchorage; baile (as in Balmoral) is Gaelic for farm or village; ceaster (as in Lancaster) is Latin for fort.

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Text 3

THE ORIGINS OF INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES

THE ORIGINS OF INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES

The traditional view of the spread of the Indo-European languages holds that an Ur-language, ancestor to all the others, was spoken by nomadic horsemen who lived in what is now western Russia north of the Black Sea near the beginning of the Bronze Age. As these mounted warriors roamed over greater and greater expanses, they conquered the indigenous peoples and imposed their own proto-Indo-European language, which in the course of succeeding centuries evolved in local areas into the European languages we know today. In recent years,

however, many scholars, particularly archaeologists, have become dissatisfied with the traditional explanation.

The starting point of the problem of the origins of Indo-European is not archaeological but linguistic. When linguists look at the languages of Europe, they quickly perceive that these languages are

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related. The connections can be seen in vocabulary, grammar and phonology (rules for pronunciation). To illustrate the relatedness in vocabulary, it is sufficient to compare the words for the numbers from one to ten in several Indo-European languages. Such a comparison makes it clear that there are significant similarities among many European languages and also Sanskrit, the language of the earliest literary texts of India, but that languages such as Chinese or Japanese are not members of the same family (see figure 1).

The Romance languages served as the first model for answering the question. Even to someone with no knowledge of Latin, the profound similarities a mong Romance languages would have made it natural to s ugges t tha t the y were derived fro m a co mmon ancestor. On the assumption that the shared characteristics of these languages came from the common progenitor (whereas the divergences arose later, as the languages diverged), it would have been possible to reconstruct many of the characteristics of the original protolanguage. In much the same way it became clear that the branches of the Indo-European family could be studied and a hypothetical family tree constructed, reading back to a common ancestor: proto-Indo European.

This is the tree approach. The basic process represented by the tree model is one of divergence: when languages become isolated from

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one other, they differ increasingly, and dialects gradually differentiate until they become separate languages.

Divergence is by no means the only possible tendency in language evolution. Johannes Schmidt, introduced a "wave " model in which linguistic changes spared like waves, leading ultimately to convergence; that is, growing similarity among languages that were initially quite different.

Today, however, most linguists think primarily in terms of linguistic family trees. It is necessary to construct some explicit models of how language change might occur according to a processbased view. There are four main classes of models.

The first is the process of initial colonization, by which an uninhabited territory becomes populated; its language naturally becomes that of the colonizers. Second are processes of divergence, such as the linguistic divergence arising form separation or isolation mentioned above in relation to early models of the Indo-European languages. The third group of models is based on processes of linguistic convergence. The wave model, formulated by Schmidt in the 1870's, is an example, but convergence methods have not generally found favour among linguists.

Now, the slow and rather static operation of these processes is complicated by another factor: linguistic replacement. That factor provides the basis for a fourth class of models. In many areas of the world the languages initially spoken by the indigenous people have come to be replaced, fully or partially, by languages spoken by people coming from outside. Were it not for this large complicating factor, the world's linguistic history could be faithfully described by the initial distribution of Homo sapiens, followed by the gradual, long-term workings of divergence and convergence. So linguistic replacement also has a key role to play in explaining the origins of the Indo-European languages.

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