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bleached or unbleached kraft or sulfite pulps. Kraft and sulfite (also called
sulphite) refer to the type of pulping process used to remove the lignin bonding
the original wood structure, thus freeing the fibers for use in paper
and engineered wood products such as fiberboard.
Animal fibers consist largely of particular proteins. Instances
are silkworm silk, spider silk, sinew, catgut, wool, sea silk and hair such
as cashmere wool, mohair and angora, fur such as sheepskin, rabbit, mink, fox,
beaver, etc.
Mineral fibers include the asbestos group. Asbestos is the only naturally
occurring long mineral fiber. Six minerals have been classified as "asbestos"
including chrysotile of the serpentine class and those belonging to
the amphibole class: amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anthophyllite and actinolite.
Short, fiber-like minerals include wollastonite and palygorskite.
Biological fibers also known as fibrous proteins or protein
filaments consist largely of biologically relevant and biologically very
important proteins, mutations or other genetic defects can lead to severe
diseases. Instances are collagen family of proteins, tendon, muscle
proteins like actin, cell proteins like microtubules and many others, spider
silk, sinew and hair etc.
Semi-synthetic fibers
Semi-synthetic fibers are made from raw materials with naturally longchain polymer structure and are only modified and partially degraded by
chemical processes, in contrast to completely synthetic fibers such
as nylon (polyamide) or dacron (polyester), which the chemist synthesizes from
low-molecular weight compounds by polymerization (chain-building) reactions.
The earliest semi-synthetic fiber is the cellulose regenerated fiber, rayon. Most
semi-synthetic fibers are cellulose regenerated fibers.
Cellulose regenerated fibers
Cellulose fibers are a subset of man-made fibers, regenerated from
natural cellulose. The cellulose comes from various sources: rayon from tree
wood fiber, Modal from beech trees, bamboo fiber from
bamboo, seacell from seaweed, etc. In the production of these fibers, the
cellulose is reduced to a fairly pure form as a viscous mass and formed into
fibers by extrusion through spinnerets. Therefore, the manufacturing process
leaves few characteristics distinctive of the natural source material in the
finished products.
Some examples of this fiber type are:
rayon
bamboo fiber
Lyocell, a brand of rayon
Modal, using beech trees as input
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diacetate fiber
triacetate fiber.
Historically, cellulose diacetate and -triacetate were classified under the
term rayon, but are now considered distinct materials.
Synthetic fibers
Synthetic come entirely from synthetic materials such as petrochemicals,
unlike those man-made fibers derived from such natural substances as cellulose
or protein. Fiber classification in reinforced plastics falls into two classes: (1)
short fibers, also known as discontinuous fibers, with a general aspect ratio
(defined as the ratio of fiber length to diameter) between 20 and 60, and (2)
long fibers, also known as continuous fibers, the general aspect ratio is between
200 and 500.
Metallic fibers
Metallic fibers can be drawn from ductile metals such as copper, gold or
silver and extruded or deposited from more brittle ones, such as nickel,
aluminum or iron. See also Stainless steel fibers.
Carbon fiber
Carbon fibers are often based on oxydized and via pyrolysis carbonized
polymers like PAN, but the end product is almost pure carbon.
Silicon carbide fibers, where the basic polymers are not hydrocarbons but
polymers, where about 50% of the carbon atoms are replaced by silicon atoms,
so-called poly-carbo-silanes. The pyrolysis yields an amorphous silicon carbide,
including mostly other elements like oxygen, titanium, or aluminium, but with
mechanical properties very similar to those of carbon fibers.
Fiberglass
Fiberglass, made from specific glass, and optical fiber, made from purified
natural quartz, are also man-made fibers that come from natural raw
materials, silica fiber, made from sodium silicate (water glass) and basalt
fiber made from melted basalt.
Mineral fibers
Mineral fibers can be particularly strong because they are formed with a
low number of surface defects, asbestos is a common one.
Polymer fibers
Polymer fibers are a subset of man-made fibers, which are based on
synthetic chemicals (often from petrochemical sources) rather than arising from
natural materials by a purely physical process. These fibers are made from:
polyamide nylon
PET or PBT polyester
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phenol-formaldehyde (PF)
polyvinyl chloride fiber (PVC) vinyon
polyolefins (PP and PE) olefin fiber
acrylic polyesters, pure polyester PAN fibers are used to
make carbon fiber by roasting them in a low oxygen environment.
Traditional acrylic fiber is used more often as a synthetic replacement for
wool. Carbon fibers and PF fibers are noted as two resin-based fibers that
are not thermoplastic, most others can be melted.
aromatic polyamids (aramids) such
as Twaron, Kevlar and Nomex thermally degrade at high temperatures and
do not melt. These fibers have strong bonding between polymer chains
polyethylene (PE), eventually with extremely long chains
/ HMPE (e.g. Dyneema or Spectra).
Elastomers can even be used, e.g. spandex although urethane fibers
are starting to replace spandex technology.
polyurethane fiber
Elastolefin
Coextruded fibers have two distinct polymers forming the fiber, usually as
a core-sheath or side-by-side. Coated fibers exist such as nickel-coated to
provide static elimination, silver-coated to provide anti-bacterial properties and
aluminum-coated to provide RF deflection for radar chaff. Radar chaff is
actually a spool of continuous glass tow that has been aluminum coated. An
aircraft-mounted high speed cutter chops it up as it spews from a moving
aircraft to confuse radar signals.
Microfibers
Microfibers in textiles refer to sub-denier fiber (such as polyester drawn to
0.5 denier). Denier and Dtex are two measurements of fiber yield based on
weight and length. If the fiber density is known, you also have a fiber diameter,
otherwise it is simpler to measure diameters in micrometers. Microfibers in
technical fibers refer to ultra fine fibers (glass or melt blown thermoplastics)
often used in filtration. Newer fiber designs include extruding fiber that splits
into multiple finer fibers. Most synthetic fibers are round in cross-section, but
special designs can be hollow, oval, star-shaped or trilobal. The latter design
provides more optically reflective properties. Synthetic textile fibers are often
crimped to provide bulk in a woven, non woven or knitted structure. Fiber
surfaces can also be dull or bright. Dull surfaces reflect more light while bright
tends to transmit light and make the fiber more transparent.
Very short and/or irregular fibers have been called fibrils.
Natural cellulose, such as cotton or bleached craft, show smaller fibrils jutting
out and away from the main fiber structure.
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Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are a subgroup of composite
materials as well as a subgroup of ceramics. They consist of
ceramic fibres embedded in a ceramic matrix. The matrix and fibres can consist
of any ceramic material, whereby carbon and carbon fibres can also be
considered a ceramic material.
History of clothing and textiles
The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of production
has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization and the
introduction of modern manufacturing techniques. However, for the main types
of textiles, plain weave, twill, or satin weave, there is little difference between
the ancient and modern methods.
Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are
for clothing and for containers such as bags and baskets. In the household they
are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels,
coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, and in art. In the workplace
they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering.
Miscellaneous uses include flags, backpacks, tents, nets, handkerchiefs,
transportation devices such as balloons, kites, sails, and parachutes. Textiles are
also used to provide strengthening in composite materials such as fibreglass and
industrial geotextiles. Textiles are used in many traditional crafts such
as sewing, quilting and embroidery.
Textiles for industrial purposes, and chosen for characteristics other than
their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical
textiles include textile structures for automotive applications, medical textiles
(e.g. implants), geotextiles (reinforcement of embankments), agrotextiles
(textiles for crop protection), protective clothing (e.g. against heat and radiation
for fire fighter clothing, against molten metals for welders, stab protection,
and bullet proof vests). In all these applications stringent performance
requirements must be met.
Textiles are made from many materials, with four main sources: animal
(wool, silk), plant (cotton, flax, jute), mineral (asbestos, glass fibre), and
synthetic (nylon, polyester, acrylic). The first three are natural. In the 20th
century, they were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum.
Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest
microfibre made of strands thinner than one denier to the
sturdiest canvas. Textile manufacturing terminology has a wealth of descriptive
terms. But those related to the fibres used in it are less numerous and are
described below.
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Animal Fibres
Animal textiles are commonly made from hair, fur, skin or silk (in the
silkworms case). Wool refers to the hair of the domestic goat or sheep, which is
distinguished from other types of animal hair in that the individual strands are
coated with scales and tightly crimped, and the wool as a whole is coated with
a wax mixture known as lanolin (sometimes called wool grease), which is
waterproof and dirt proof. Woollen refers to a bulkier yarn produced from
carded, non-parallel fibre, while worsted refers to a finer yarn spun from longer
fibres which have been combed to be parallel. Wool is commonly used for
warm clothing. Cashmere, the hair of the Indian cashmere goat, and mohair, the
hair of the North African angora goat, are types of wool known for their
softness.
Other animal textiles which are made from hair or fur are alpaca
wool, vicuña wool, llama wool, and camel hair, generally used in the production
of coats, jackets, ponchos, blankets, and other warm coverings. Angora refers to
the long, thick, soft hair of the angora rabbit. Wadmal is a coarse cloth made of
wool, produced in Scandinavia, mostly 1000~1500 CE.
Silk is an animal textile made from the fibres of the cocoon of the
Chinese silkworm which is spun into a smooth fabric prized for its softness.
There are two main types of the silk: 'mulberry silk' produced by the Bombyx
Mori, and 'wild silk' such as Tussah silk. Silkworm larvae produce the first type
if cultivated in habitats with fresh mulberry leaves for consumption, while
Tussah silk is produced by silkworms feeding purely on oak leaves. Around
four-fifths of the world's silk production consists of cultivated silk.
Plant Fibres
Grass, rush, hemp, and sisal are all used in making rope. In the first two,
the entire plant is used for this purpose, while in the last two only fibres from
the plant are utilized. Coir (coconut fibre) is used in making twine, and also in
floor mats, door mats, brushes, mattresses, floor tiles, and sacking.
Straw and bamboo are both used to make hats. Straw, a dried form of grass, is
also used for stuffing, as is kapok. Fibres from pulpwood trees, cotton, rice,
hemp, and nettle are used in making paper.
Cotton, flax, jute, hemp, modal and even bamboo fibre are all used in
clothing. Piña (pineapple fibre) and ramie are also fibres used in clothing,
generally with a blend of other fibres such as cotton. Nettles have also been
used to make a fibre and fabric very similar to hemp or flax. The use of
milkweed stalk fibre has also been reported, but it tends to be somewhat weaker
than other fibres like hemp or flax.
The inner bark of the lacebark tree is a fine netting that has been used to
make clothing and accessories as well as utilitarian articles such as rope.
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Acetate is used to increase the shininess of certain fabrics such as
silks, velvets, and taffetas.
Seaweed is used in the production of textiles: a water-soluble fibre known
as alginate is produced and is used as a holding fibre; when the cloth is finished,
the alginate is dissolved, leaving an open area.
Lyocell is a synthetic fabric derived from wood pulp. It is often described
as a synthetic silk equivalent; it is a tough fabric that is often blended with other
fabrics – cotton, for example.
Fibres from the stalks of plants, such as hemp, flax, and nettles, are also
known as 'bast' fibres.
Mineral Fibres
Asbestos and basalt fibre are used for vinyl tiles, sheeting and adhesives,
"transit" panels and siding, acoustical ceilings, stage curtains, and fire blankets.
Glass fibre is used in the production of ironing board and mattress covers,
ropes and cables, reinforcement fibre for composite materials, insect netting,
flame-retardant and protective fabric, soundproof, fireproof, and insulating
fibres. Glass fibres are woven and coated with Teflon to produce beta cloth, a
virtually fireproof fabric which replaced nylon in the outer layer of United
States space suits since 1968
Metal fibre, metal foil, and metal wire have a variety of uses, including the
production of cloth-of-gold and jewellery. Hardware cloth (US term only) is a
coarse woven mesh of steel wire, used in construction. It is much like
standard window screening, but heavier and with a more open weave.
Minerals and natural and synthetic fabrics may be combined, as in emery
cloth, a layer of emery abrasive glued to a cloth backing. Also, "sand cloth" is a
U.S. term for fine wire mesh with abrasive glued to it, employed like emery
cloth.
Synthetic Fibres
Synthetic textiles are used primarily in the production of clothing, as well
as the manufacture of geotextiles. Polyester fibre is used in all types of clothing,
either alone or blended with fibres such as cotton. Aramid fibre (e.g. Twaron) is
used for flame-retardant clothing, cut-protection, and armour. Acrylic is a fibre
used to imitate wools, including cashmere, and is often used in replacement of
them. Nylon is a fibre used to imitate silk; it is used in the production
of pantyhose. Thicker nylon fibres are used in rope and outdoor clothing.
Spandex (trade name Lycra) is a polyurethane product that can be made tightfitting without impeding movement. It is used to make active wear, bras,
and swimsuits.
Milk proteins have also been used to create synthetic fabric. Milk
or casein fibre cloth was developed during World War I in Germany, and
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further developed in Italy and America during the 1930s. Milk fibre fabric is not
very durable and wrinkles easily, but has a pH similar to human skin and
possesses anti-bacterial properties. It is marketed as
a biodegradable, renewable synthetic fibre.
Carbon fibre is mostly used in composite materials, together with resin,
such as carbon fibre reinforced plastic. The fibres are made from polymer fibres
through carbonization.
Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are
for clothing and for containers such as bags and baskets. In the household they
are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels,
coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, and in art. In the workplace
they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering.
Miscellaneous uses include flags, backpacks, tents, nets, handkerchiefs,
cleaning rags, transportation devices such as balloons, kites, sails,
and parachutes; textiles are also used to provide strengthening in composite
materials such as fibreglass and industrial geotextiles. Textiles are used in many
traditional crafts such as sewing, quilting and embroidery.
Textiles for industrial purposes, and chosen for characteristics other than
their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical
textiles include textile structures for automotive applications, medical textiles
(e.g. implants), geotextiles (reinforcement of embankments), agrotextiles
(textiles for crop protection), protective clothing (e.g. against heat and radiation
for fire fighter clothing, against molten metals for welders, stab protection,
and bullet proof vests). In all these applications stringent performance
requirements must be met. Woven of threads coated with zinc oxide nanowires,
laboratory fabric has been shown capable of "self-powering nanosystems" using
vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements.
Textiles are made from many materials, with four main sources: animal
(wool, silk), plant (cotton, flax, jute), mineral (asbestos, glass fibre), and
synthetic (nylon, polyester, acrylic). The first three are natural. In the 20th
century, they were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum.
Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the
finest microfibre made of strands thinner than one denier to the
sturdiest canvas. Textile manufacturing terminology has a wealth of descriptive
terms, from light gauze-like gossamer to heavy grosgrain cloth and beyond.
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GRAMMAR APPENDIX
REVISION
TENSES. ACTIVE VOICE
1. Make sentences in the Active Voice using these expressions
1. To get up / usually
2. To leave home / always at 9 o’clock
3. To get to the University / in ten minutes
4. To go to the university / yesterday
5. To take a taxi to the railway station / tomorrow
6. To see a new film / two day ago
7. To finish work / in an hour
8. To apply for a job / now
9. To visit friends / next Sunday
10. To buy a new car / last week
11. To repair the car / for several hours
12. To attend an interesting lecture / for two hours yesterday
13. To open the door / now
14. To close the window / just
15. To borrow books from the library / tomorrow
2. Open the brackets
1. John (to leave) for his office now.
2. He (to arrive) at his office in 40 minutes.
3. He (to work) as a department manager there.
4. He (to get) there by 10 o’clock.
5. At 11 o’clock he (to attend) a meeting.
6. For two hours all of the managers (to discuss) the production plan of
the company.
7. In the middle of the discussion they usually (to have) a break.
8. Two hours ago they still (to discuss) their problems.
9. By 1 o’clock their meeting (to be) over.
10.
Then they (to go) to the dining-room to have lunch.
11.
During the lunch they certainly (to discuss) the foot-ball match
they (to see) yesterday.
12.
Practically all of them (to be) foot-ball fans.
13.
They (to like) to discuss foot-ball matches.
14.
By 7 p.m. John (to come) home.
15.
He knows his wife (to wait) for him.
16.
At 7 p.m. John’s family (to have) supper.
17.
Tomorrow (to be) Saturday.
18.
This time tomorrow we will be going to the country.
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19.
1. To study economics
2. To do exercises
3. To get ready for the exams
4. To attend lectures
5. To go to the library
6. To read a book
7. To take notes at the lectures
8. To have breakfast
9. To write a test
10. Not to go to the University
11. To study at the reading-room
12. Ta watch TV
13. To attend a lecture by Prof. Petrov
14. To translate a text
15. To say good-by to the teacher
16. To translate a text
17. To meet a friend
18. To go to the country
19. To write the test
20. To come home in time
1. Now
2. Yesterday
3. For two hours last night
4. Every day
5. At 5.30 yesterday
6. When we came
7. Always
8. At home
9. Last Monday
10. To day
11. For two hours tomorrow
12. Usually in the evening
13. Now
14. When I saw John
15. Before he left
16. The whole evening
17. Two hours ago
18. Often
19. By the end of the break
20. Usually
They (to come) back home Sunday evening.
20.
On Monday John (to go) to his office as usual.
3. Make sentences with these verbs and adverbials
1. Examine carefully the way the sentences are transformed into
the passive voice
1. John attends the University classes daily.
2. The University classes are attended by John daily.
3. Now he is attending a lecture on history.
4. A lecture on history is being attended by him.
5. They constructed this plant last year.
6. This plant was constructed last year
7. She will invite him to her birthday party.
8. He will be invited to her birthday party.
9. John has taken his first exam.
10. The first exam has been taken by John successfully.
TENSES. PASSIVE VOICE
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2. Now transform the following sentences into the passive voice
1. John didn’t attend the lectures yesterday.
2. He has borrowed this book from the library.
3. He will return it in a week.
4. They are attending this lecture.
5. They produce high-quality shoes.
6. She usually buys expensive clothes.
7. This shop sells mass-produced cheap goods.
8. He invented a new method of performing this operation.
9. They will buy new equipment for their factory.
10. They have already checked their translations.
11. We cannot translate this letter because we have no dictionary.
12. They must attend this meeting.
13. She will manage our department.
14. They will have appointed her by Monday.
3. Make sentences in the Passive Voice using these expressions
1. To open the door
2. To close the window
3. To visit friends
4. To repair the flat
5. To take a taxi
6. To borrow books from the library
7. To see a new film
8. To buy a new car
9. To repair the car
10. To finish work
11. To attend lectures
NOUNS AS ADJECTIVES
Look at this grammatical pattern and translate the expressions
Leisure time = свободное время
Street traffic = уличное движение
Street traffic regulation = регулирование уличного движения
Street traffic regulation deficiencies = недостатки регулирования
уличного движения
Translate the following
1. A brick wall
2. Wall bricks
3. The story title
4. The title story
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