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Файл:Mental processes and states in general psychology (for students in the English medium). Study aid
.pdf
federal state budgetary educational institution of higher education
“Samara State Medical University”
Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation
Department of general and clinical psychology
V.V. Kalashnikova, A.V. Ilmuzina
MENTAL PROCESSES AND STATES
IN GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
(FOR STUDENTS IN THE ENGLISH MEDIUM)
Study aid
Moscow
IPR Media
2026
UDC 159.95
LBC 88.25
K17
Authors:
Kalashnikova V.V. — Candidate of Medical Sciences, Associate Professor,
Department of General and Clinical Psychology, Samara State Medical University;
Ilmuzina A.V. — Senior Lecturer Department of General and Clinical Psychology,
Samara State Medical University
Reviewers:
Rozhkova T.V. — Candidate of Philological Sciences, Head of Department
of Foreign and Latin Languages, Associate Professor, Samara State Medical University;
Sloeva E.A. — Candidate Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor Department
of Pedagogy and Digital Didactics, Samara State Medical University
Kalashnikova, Valentina Vladimirovna.
K17 Mental processes and states in general psychology (for students in the
English medium) : study aid / V.V. Kalashnikova, A.V. Ilmuzina ; Samara State
Medical University. — Moscow : IPR Media, 2026. — 107 p. — Text :
electronic.
ISBN 978-5-4497-5319-9
Study aid examines the volitional sphere of the psyche (motivation, will,
emotions), personality (temperament, character, consciousness, unconscious,
conflict). the role of projective tests and assessment of personal qualities is
shown.
The study aid has been developed in accordance with the curriculum for
preparing students studying in the specialty "General medicine" (bilingual
training) for the course "Psychology and Pedagogy", module 2 "Psychology".
This study guide serves not only as a resource for professional education but also
as a tool for personal development.
Educational electronic publication
Approved and recommended to the publishing by the Central Coordination
Academic Council, Samara State Medical University (Protocol № 5 dated 19.02.2025)
ISBN 978-5-4497-5319-9 © Kalashnikova V.V., Ilmuzina A.V., 2026
© Samara State Medical University, 2026
© LLC Company “IPR Media”, 2026
Educational publication
Kalashnikova Valentina Vladimirovna
Ilmuzina Aleksandra Viktorovna
Editor M.V. Leman
Technical editor, computer layout Yu.A. Voroshilova
Cover by Ya.A. Kirsanov, S.S. Siziumova, photobank Freepik
Signed for use 03.03.2026. Data volume 8 Mb.
LLC Company “IPR Media”
8 800 555 22 35 (toll-free within Russia)
E-mail: sales@iprmedia.ru
4
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 5
PART I. THE CONATIVE SPHERE OF THE PSYCHE .................................. 6
TOPIC I. MOTIVATION .......................................................................................... 6
TOPIC II. WILL ...................................................................................................... 15
TOPIC III. EMOTIONS .......................................................................................... 21
PART II. PERSONALITY ................................................................................... 40
TOPIC IV. TEMPERAMENT ................................................................................ 40
TOPIC V. CHARACTER ....................................................................................... 44
TOPIC VI. CONSCIOUSNESS .............................................................................. 59
TOPIC VII. UNCONSCIOUS ................................................................................ 68
TOPIC VIII. CONFLICT ........................................................................................ 79
TOPIC IX. THE ROLE OF PROJECTIVE TESTS AND PERSONALITY
INVENTORIES ASSESMENT .............................................................................. 98
LIST OF REFERENCES ................................................................................... 107
5
INTRODUCTION
The study guide "Mental Processes and States in General Psychology" has been
developed in accordance with the curriculum for preparing students specializing in
"General Medicine" (bilingual training) for the course "Psychology and Pedagogy",
Module 2 "Psychology". The purpose of this study guide is to contribute to the
development of the course "Psychology and Pedagogy", Module 2 "Psychology", and
help achieve its objective, which is to prepare future specialists to address practical
psychological issues arising during a physician’s professional activities. It does so by
developing students’ knowledge, skills, and competencies in the field of psychology,
while simultaneously fostering motivation for personal and professional growth.
Mental Processes and States in General Psychology comprises five main
sections. It commences with Part I, "The Conative Sphere of the Psyche",
which encompasses three subsections: "Motivation", "Will", and "Emotions".
Subsequently, Part II, "Personality", delves into the subjects of temperament,
character, personality traits, and coping behaviors. This section also addresses
the concepts of consciousness and the unconscious mind, along with personal
relationships in conflict scenarios. Each chapter is organized sequentially, featuring
theoretical content, laboratory exercises, and self-assessment tasks.
The study of emotions, motivation, will, and conflicts can be highly beneficial
for future doctors due to their profound impact on patient care and communication.
Understanding emotions helps medical professionals empathize with patients,
recognize emotional distress, and respond appropriately, improving overall
therapeutic outcomes. By comprehending motivation, physicians can better
encourage patients to adhere to treatment plans, adopt healthier lifestyles, or maintain
necessary follow-up visits. A grasp of human will enables doctors to support patients'
autonomy while navigating complex decisions regarding their health. Additionally,
knowledge about conflicts equips practitioners to manage interpersonal tensions
within healthcare teams or between caregivers and patients, fostering more
harmonious environments.
Moreover, psychological diagnostics play an essential role in medicine by
enabling early detection of mental health conditions such as anxiety, depression, or
stress-related disorders. Incorporating diagnostic tools into routine practice allows
doctors to provide holistic care, addressing both physical and psychological aspects
of illness. This integrated approach enhances patient satisfaction, compliance, and
long-term well-being, ultimately contributing to more effective healthcare delivery.
This study guide serves not only as a resource for professional education but
also as a tool for personal development.
6
PART I. THE CONATIVE SPHERE OF THE PSYCHE
TOPIC I. MOTIVATION
Our behavior is structured in a way that continually aims to fulfill needs and
discover the most efficient methods to achieve this goal. Cognitive processes serve
the regulatory aspect of behavior, while conative (motivation-driven and volitional)
processes address motivation.
Why Do We Act the Way We Do?
Motivation refers to a collection of mental factors determining the energy and
direction of behavior. Based on their roles in regulating behavior, motivating factors
fall into three distinct categories:
– motives ensure the activation of behavior (including animal instincts and
human needs);
– drives guide the direction of this activity (both unconscious urges and
conscious goals);
– regulatory mechanisms govern the dynamics of behavior (emotions and
attitudes).
Theories About Motivation
William James (1842–1910), regarded as the founder of psychology,
contributed substantially to early studies of motivation. He posited that behavior
stems from numerous instincts crucial for survival. Biologically speaking, instincts
represent species-specific patterns of behavior that aren't learned. However,
definitions of instinct varied widely among James and his peers. James listed dozens
of human instincts, yet his colleagues often disagreed, proposing divergent catalogs.
Maternal care, cravings for sweet tastes, and predatory behavior were among actions
once classified as instinctual. This notion — that human conduct arises mainly from
instincts — faced criticism due to the clear influence of learning on human behavior.
Homeostatic Theory of Motivation
Another prominent theory contends that maintaining homeostasis plays
a pivotal role in managing behavior. Homeostasis describes the tendency to sustain
optimal levels within biological systems. Within the body, a control center (often part
of the brain) monitors signals from receptors (typically clusters of neurons). When an
imbalance is detected, the control center activates effectors (also potentially neurons)
to restore equilibrium.
This homeostatic approach suggests that deviations from stability generate
physiological needs. These needs elicit psychological drive states, steering behavior
7
toward fulfilling the need and restoring balance. For instance, prolonged fasting
causes a drop in blood sugar, triggering hunger — a state of arousal directing us to
eat. Consumption restores glucose levels, alleviating hunger and reinforcing the
habitual response. Thus, successful reduction of arousal encourages repetition of
similar behaviors when faced with recurring drives.
Extensions of drive theory consider levels of arousal as potential motivators.
As you recall from your study of learning, these theories suggest that there is an
optimal level of arousal that we strive to maintain. If we're under-aroused, we grow
bored and seek stimulation. Conversely, if we're over-aroused, we'll act to reduce our
arousal (Berlin, 1960). Many students experience this need to balance arousal during
their academic careers. Consider the stress students face near the end of a spring
semester, overwhelmed by exams, papers, and major assignments. They likely crave
the rest and relaxation awaiting them during summer break. Yet after finishing the
semester, boredom sets in relatively quickly. By the time fall rolls around, many are
eager to resume school. This illustrates how arousal theory operates.
What constitutes the optimal level of arousal? Moderate arousal generally
fosters peak performance; excessively high or low arousal tends to impair functioning
(Yerkes & Dodson, 1908).
Self-Efficacy and Social Motives
Self-efficacy reflects one's confidence in their ability to accomplish a task,
whether through prior success with identical or similar challenges. Albert Bandura
(1994) proposed that self-efficacy significantly impacts motivation. He argued that
motivation stems from our expectations regarding behavior outcomes, and our
perceived capability to perform shapes our choices and future goals. For instance, if
you firmly believe in your capacity to excel, you're inclined to tackle demanding
tasks and persevere despite setbacks. Achievement motivation fuels effort and
performance.
Conative functions dictate the direction of external behavior and human
activity toward necessary objects of interaction. Key motivational elements include
needs, attitudes, interests, drives, inclinations, desires, and motives.
Needs stand out as particularly influential in driving behavior. Needs arise
from the necessity for objects essential to existence and development, serving as
sources of action. Human needs emerge only through analyzing the social context.
Advanced animals demonstrate the influence of group dynamics on individual needs,
as evidenced by experiments showing that herd organization effectively mitigates
basic urges like hunger, thirst, and self-preservation. Civilizational advancements
have spawned diverse socially-mediated needs.
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When describing needs, consider dynamic aspects such as:
– power;
– frequency (periodicity);
– satisfaction methods;
– development (hierarchical progression).
Various scholars classify needs differently, identifying anywhere from single
digits to hundreds. The motivational sphere's structure informs personality
orientation. Among the most famous frameworks is Abraham Maslow's hierarchical
structure of needs, introduced in 1971 ("Maslow's Pyramid", Fig. 1).
Interpretation of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is commonly depicted as a pyramid, with the most
fundamental needs forming the base. The first four levels constitute what Maslow
termed "deficit needs" or "D-needs". These needs are characterized by the feeling
of deficiency until they are met. Once satisfied, individuals no longer feel motivated
by them.
Maslow stressed that certain prerequisites must be met for basic needs to be
fulfilled. For instance, freedom of speech and expression are essential conditions.
Blockades to these freedoms can hinder the satisfaction of lower-level needs.
Fig. 1. A. Maslow's Pyramid
Focus on Self-Actualization
Central to Maslow's theory is the concept of self-actualization, defined as
realizing one's full potential and utilizing one's innate abilities and interests. Maslow
viewed self-actualization as inherently individualistic, emphasizing the sovereignty of
the self and its entitlement to personal tastes, opinions, and values. Some interpret
self-actualization as a form of "healthy narcissism".
In observing self-actualizing individuals, Maslow identified shared traits.
These people typically focus outward, demonstrating creativity, spontaneity, and
a willingness to defy conventional norms. Their defining qualities include:
– truth: honesty, authenticity, purity, and wholeness;
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– goodness: righteousness, virtue, integrity, and kindness;
– beauty: form, vibrancy, simplicity, richness, and harmony;
– aliveness: vitality, spontaneity, and self-regulation;
– perfection: balance, appropriateness, and completeness;
– necessity: inevitability and precision;
– justice: fairness, impartiality, and equity;
– simplicity: abstraction, essence, and straightforwardness;
– playfulness: joy, amusement, and lightheartedness;
– self-sufficiency: autonomy, independence, and self-direction.
Maslow's pyramid remains influential in higher education, guiding student
advising and retention strategies.
Contributions of Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers, another humanist psychologist, explored self-concept and
self-actualization. He underscored the significance of a supportive environment for
personal growth, highlighting the importance of:
– sincerity: the ability to express oneself openly and safely;
– acceptance: receiving unconditional positive regard and recognition;
– empathy: being heard and understood.
Rogers’ Definition of Self-Actualization
Rogers offered his own perspective on self-actualization: "The organism has
one basic tendency and striving — to actualize, maintain, and enhance the
experiencing organism".
He elaborated on this idea by introducing the concept of a "fully functioning
person". Unlike Maslow, Rogers believed that anyone could achieve their full potential
since self-actualization is a lifelong, ongoing process rather than a fixed endpoint.
Critics argue that Rogers' theory is overly Western-centric and places excessive
emphasis on individualism. Nonetheless, his ideas remain influential and are held in
high esteem.
Motive as a Categorical Concept
Following the concept of needs, the notion of motive emerges as a foundational
element in understanding human behavior. The motivational sphere undergoes agerelated shifts, reflecting changes in dominant motives, the growing influence of
socially mediated needs, and increasing hierarchization. With maturity, motives
become more consciously driven.
It's worth noting that a single motive can be satisfied through multiple actions,
while a given action might stem from several motives simultaneously. Individuals
often exhibit polymotivation, meaning their actions are driven by multiple
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overlapping motives. In such cases, it's useful to differentiate between primary,
leading motives and secondary stimuli, which amplify rather than initiate activity.
Ultimately, individuals select actions that align with — or encompass — most of
their current motives.
Development of the Motivational Sphere
Summarizing insights from domestic researchers (L.S. Vygotsky,
S.L. Rubinstein, A.N. Leontiev) and international figures (Kurt Lewin, Sigmund Freud),
L.I. Bozhovich identifies key principles underlying the development of motivation:
1. Activity originates from needs, and the object required to satisfy these needs
determines the nature and direction of said activity.
2. Contradictory or diverse needs can converge upon a single object.
3. Assimilating new activities gives rise to novel needs, though these are not
limited to the scope of the activity itself.
4. Alongside expanding the spectrum of needs, each need evolves from simpler
to more sophisticated forms.
5. Over time, the motivational structure transforms, influenced by shifting
ratios between interacting needs and motives, thereby affecting the character of
activity across all domains.
6. Not all motives exert equal motivational force; some are foundational and
leading, while others play secondary roles.
Social needs evolve through mediation by life circumstances, manifesting as
"social feelings" and undergoing continual self-development.
LABORATORY WORK
MOTIVATION GUOTES
Purpose. The goal of a laboratory assignment on selecting motivational
proverbs is typically to study the impact of different types of motivational stimuli on
students's behavior and productivity and to study the influence of proverbs on
students' motivation and behavior.
Work progress. For each partition select the quote which you could use in
your life more often than others. Justify your choice.
About studying
1. If you fall asleep now, you will dream. If you study now, you will live
your dream.
2. The pain of studying is only temporary. But the pain of not knowing —
ignorance is forever.
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