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Файл:Mental processes and states in general psychology (for students in the English medium). Study aid
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– the conflict "disgust-disgust", the so-called conflict "Scylla and Charybdis".
This conflict involves two goals with negative valence. At times the individual is
forced to choose one among two negative goals. In such conflicts, both are unwanted
goals, but he cannot keep quiet without opting also. For example, a woman must work
at a job which she dislikes very much or else she has to remain unemployed (fig. 6);
Fig. 6. The conflict "disgust-disgust"
– conflict "attraction–disgust". This is the most complex conflict and very
difficult to resolve. Because in this type of conflict a person is both attracted and
repelled by the same goal object. Here the goal object will have both positive and
negative valences. For example, a person is approaching to accept a job offer,
because the salary is attractive but at the same time he is repelled back as the job is
very risky (fig. 7).
Fig. 7. The conflict "attraction-disgust"
The interpersonal conflict is caused between individuals. The Thomas-
Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) assesses an individual’s behavior in
conflict (fig. 8). We can describe a person’s behavior along two basic dimensions:
assertiveness, the extent to which the individual attempts to satisfy his or her
own concern;
cooperativeness, the extent to which the individual attempts to satisfy
the other person’s concerns.
Competition is a win-or-lose style of handling conflicts. It is the act of
asserting one's perspective at the expense of another. Contesting or forcing has
a strong focus on personal objectives and a weak focus on relationships. It is suitable
for resolving conflicts that do not involve disagreements. It is also beneficial when
unpopular but necessary decisions need to be made.
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Fig. 8. The Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Model
Collaboration aims at finding some solution that can satisfy the conflicting
parties. It is based on a willingness to accept as valid the interests of the other party
whilst protecting one's own interests. Disagreement is addressed openly and
alternatives are discussed to arrive at the best solution. This method therefore
involves high cooperation and low confrontation. Collaboration is essential when
both parties are committed to resolving the issue and are ready to work together to
find a solution that is satisfactory to both. Collaboration is the most effective
approach to managing disagreements, as it aims to meet the needs of both parties.
It is collaborative and prioritizes both personal objectives and the preservation of
the relationship.
Compromise is a frequently employed method for addressing disagreements,
particularly when the parties involved have comparable levels of authority and
distinct objectives. It is founded on the notion that a middle path should be discovered
to resolve the dispute, taking into account both personal objectives and interpersonal
connections. In the process of concession, each party involved experiences both
advantages and disadvantages.
Avoidance is based on the belief that conflict is evil, unwanted or boorish.
It should be delayed or ignored. The strategy of avoidance is characterized by low
levels of cooperation and confrontation. It is effective when conflicts are minor or
when the opposing party is unyielding due to their inflexible approach. By avoiding
direct confrontation, the parties involved in the conflict can take time to calm down.
Accommodation involves high cooperation and low confrontation. It plays
down differences and stresses commonalities. Accommodating can be a good strategy
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when one party accepts that it is wrong and has a lot to lose and little to gain.
Consequently, they are willing to accommodate the wishes of the other party.
Each person is capable of using all five conflict-handling modes. Nobody can
be characterized as having a single style of dealing with conflict. But certain people
use some modes better than others and, therefore, tend to rely on those modes more
heavily than others — whether because of temperament or practice.
The conflict behavior in the workplace is therefore a result of both personal
predispositions and the requirements of the situation in which person find yourself.
The Thomas-Kilmann Instrument is designed to measure the conflict-handling modes
across a wide variety of group and organizational settings.
According to Kirchoff and Adams (1982), there are four distinct conflict
conditions, i.e., high stress environments, ambiguous roles and responsibilities,
multiple boss situations, and prevalence of advanced technology. Filley (1975)
identified several main conditions which could initiate conflict situations in
an organization. These are:
1. Ambiguous jurisdiction, which occurs when two individuals have
responsibilities which are interdependent but whose work boundaries and role
definitions are not clearly specified.
2. Goal incompatibility and conflict of interest refer to accomplishment of
different but mutually conflicting goals by two individuals working together in
an organization. Obstructions in accomplishing goals and lack of clarity on how to do
a job may initiate conflicts. Barriers to goal accomplishment arise when goal
attainment by an individual or group is seen as preventing another party achieving
their goal.
3. Communication barriers, as difficulties in communicating can cause
misunderstanding, which can then create conflict situations.
4. Dependence on one party by another group or individual.
5. Differentiation in organization, where, within an organization, sub-units are
made responsible for different, specialized tasks. This creates separation and introduces
differentiation. Conflict situations could arise when actions of sub-units are not
properly coordinated and integrated.
6. Association of the parties and specialization. When individuals specialized
in different areas work in a group, they may disagree amongst themselves because
they have different goals, views and methodologies owing to their various
backgrounds, training and experiences.
7. Behaviour regulation. Organizations have to have firm regulations for
individual behaviour to ensure protection and safety. Individuals may perceive these
regulations differently, which can cause conflict and negatively affect output.
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8. Unresolved prior conflicts which remain unsettled over time create anxiety
and stress, which can further intensify existing conflicts. A manager's most important
function is to avoid potential harmful results of conflict by regulating and directing
it into areas beneficial for the organization.
The psychological structure of the conflict includes a conflict situation and
an incident. The conflict situation is the objective basis of the conflict, fixing the
emergence of a real contradiction in the interests and needs of the parties, in which
there is an object of the conflict (a real or ideal object that is the cause of the dispute)
and parties to the conflict (individuals or groups of people). The parties to the conflict
are characterized by the presence of an external and internal position in the conflict.
External position — the motivation for participation in the conflict, openly
presented by the parties to their opponents. Internal position — those true interests,
motives and values that force a person or group to join the conflict. Often they are
hidden not only from opponents and observers, but also from the subject himself,
as unconscious. The outer position may or may not coincide with the inner position.
An incident is a situation of interaction that allows its participants to realize
the presence of an objective contradiction in their interests and goals (awareness of
a conflict situation). A hidden incident unfolds at the level of the participants'
awareness of the conflict of what is happening, but does not manifest itself in their
real relationships and reactions. An open incident is a series of conflict actions of
participants in relation to each other.
The dynamics of the conflict corresponds to its structure and consists of four
main stages:
1) the emergence of an objective conflict situation (pre-conflict situation
or potential conflict);
2) awareness of the conflict;
3) conflict actions: with a way out of the conflict, entry into the conflict,
struggle "to the bitter end";
4) conflict resolution.
There are two main ways to resolve the conflict. The first way — removing
the incident — transferring the conflict to the stage of awareness (without conflict
actions) or to the stage of an unconscious conflict situation. Main ways:
a) securing a win for one side when the losing side accepts its defeat (often
a temporary condition that persists until the next major incident);
b) removing the conflict with the help of lies, transferring the conflict into
an unconscious form.
The second way is to resolve the conflict situation in the following ways:
a) complete physical or functional separation of participants;
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b) internal restructuring of the image of the situation through a change in the
value system of the participants in the conflict (applicable in conflicts affecting deep
interpersonal relationships);
c) conflict resolution through confrontation to cooperation (applicable in
the field of business conflicts).
Theory of conflict management
Conflict is defined as disagreement between individuals. It can vary from
a mild disagreement to a win-or-lose, emotion-packed, confrontation. There are two
theories of conflict management.
The traditional theory is based on the assumption that conflicts are bad,
are caused by trouble makers, and should be subdued.
Contemporary theory recognizes that conflicts between human beings are
unavoidable. They arise as a consequence of change and can be advantageous for
the company if properly managed. Modern theory views innovation as a process of
combining diverse ideas and perspectives into a novel synthesis. A climate of tension,
and consequently, conflict, is therefore crucial for any organization dedicated to
fostering or working with novel concepts.
Conflict functions:
a) destructive — the destruction of joint activities, emotional tension, violations
of the law, morality, military clashes, pathological consequences, deterioration or
collapse of interpersonal relationships; dislike;
b) constructive — a source of development of the individual, group, interpersonal
relationships; liberation of the group through open confrontation from stagnation,
improvement of the psychological climate, development of mutual understanding
between participants;
c) diagnostic — understanding the causes of the confrontation that has arisen,
the motives of its participants.
Strategies for managing conflicts
Tosi, Rizzo, and Carroll suggested four ways of managing conflicts,
namely through:
Styles. Conflict handling behaviour styles (such as competition, collaboration,
compromise, avoidance or accommodation) may be suitably encouraged, depending
upon the situation.
Improving organizational practices. After identifying the reason for
the conflict situation, suitable organizational practices can be used to resolve
conflicts, including:
– establishing superordinate goals;
– reducing vagueness;
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– minimizing authority — and domain-related disputes;
– improving policies, procedures and rules;
– re-apportioning existing resources or adding new;
– altering communications;
– movement of personnel, and
– changing reward systems.
Special roles and structure. A manager has to
– initiate structural changes needed, including re-location or merging of
specialized units;
– shoulder liaison functions, and act as an integrator to resolve conflicts.
A person with problem-solving skills and respected by the conflicting parties
can be designated to de-fuse conflicts.
Confrontation techniques. Confrontation techniques aim at finding a mutually
acceptable and enduring solution through collaboration and compromise. It is done in
the hope that conflicting parties are ready to face each other amicably, and entails
intercession, bargaining, negotiation, mediation, attribution and application of
the integrative decision method, which is a collaborative style based on the premise that
there is a solution which can be accepted by both parties. It involves a process of
defining the problem, searching for alternatives and their evaluation, and deciding by
consensus.
Conflict situations should be either resolved or used beneficially. Conflicts can
have positive or negative effects for the organization, depending upon the environment
created by the manager as she or he manages and regulates the conflict situation.
Some of the positive effects of conflict situations are:
1. Diffusion of more serious conflicts. Games can be used to moderate the
attitudes of people by providing a competitive situation which can liberate tension in
the conflicting parties, as well as having some entertainment value. In organizations
where members participate in decision making, disputes are usually minor and not
acute as the closeness of members moderates belligerent and assertive behaviour into
minor disagreements, which minimizes the likelihood of major fights.
2. Stimulation of a search for new facts or resolutions. When two parties who
respect each other face a conflict situation, the conflict resolution process may help in
clarifying the facts and stimulating a search for mutually acceptable solutions.
3. Increase in group cohesion and performance. When two or more parties are
in conflict, the performance and cohesion of each party is likely to improve.
In a conflict situation, an opponent's position is evaluated negatively, and group
allegiance is strongly reinforced, leading to increased group effort and cohesion.
4. Assessment of power or ability. In a conflict situation, the relative ability or
power of the parties involved can be identified and measured.
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Negative effects of conflicts:
1) impediments to smooth working;
2) diminishing output;
3) obstructions in the decision making process, and
4) formation of competing affiliations within the organization.
The overall result of such negative effects is to reduce employees' commitment
to organizational goals and organizational efficiency.
"BALANCED ASSERTIVENESS"
We are confronted to an uncertain world that is rife with opportunities for
contradiction and conflicts. Everyone defend their own interests. What some call
"good faith" will be regarded as "bad faith" by others. In this context, balanced
assertiveness may be regarded as the ideal attitude in difficult situations and conflicts.
It consists in clearly expressing one’s goals while accepting contradiction and
the search for compromise. Balanced assertiveness may thus be defined as the art of
expressing one’s feelings, ideas, rights and needs, while respecting others and taking
their own desires and goals into account. Thus, the practice of assertiveness shall
allow expressing a disagreement, formulating and facing criticism, daring to say "no",
or resisting manipulation attempts, without necessarily breaking the relationship.
Assertiveness may be seen as the ideal attitude that may be adopted when
facing contradiction, as it seeks to establish a "win-win" partnership between
the parties involved. However, our everyday experience attests to the fact that, in
situations of conflicts, addressing both our own needs and those of others is far from
being an easy task. There are some communication techniques that can complement
and support the practice of assertiveness:
Active listening: this method helps up in clarifying what the communication
partner wants to report, understand what have been said and how that we understood.
The "DESC" technique: the basic principle is that the organization and
the structuring of thoughts allow better control of the action and reduce the risk of
getting carried away.
The "Broken Record" technique: it’s basically repeating the same request in
a little different way, with smile and polite and affable tone. Be calm, avoid
aggressiveness or ironic tone.
The "Radio Silence" technique: this technique consists in not listening
to what the speaker has to say. It saves time, energy and reduces the probability that
you will give in to your emotions.
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The "Cushion" technique: this technique is effective at creating a malicious
or poorly reasoned situation when criticizing someone. It consists in saying nothing
that might get you involved, nor giving any information that might lead to
an argument or a conflict. Simply restate what the person speaking has said in
a very neutral manner. It is useful, for example, when the interlocutor attacks on
an irrelevant or out of context issue.
The "ground rules" of an assertive behavior:
– acting with authenticity (being oneself);
– basing relationships on mutual trusts;
– refusing to let others tread on your feet;
– using opportunities to act on one’s immediate environment;
– finding realistic compromises based on mutual interests;
– accepting to be contradicted and disagreed with;
– putting the cards on the table: negotiating on the basis of clear and
specific goals.
Although diverse applicable communication techniques can help us deal with
conflicts in a more harmonious way, it is also of interest to note that certain personal
tendencies and habits can undermine our efforts. It is indeed difficult to list up all
specific situations and personal factors that have an impact on the practice of
assertive communication. Some individual needs, although perfectly legitimate and
understandable at the start, can constitute serious obstacles to assertiveness once
they become too invasive. Here are a few examples of such attitudes, as well
as suggestions as to how to counter them:
Striving to be loved at all costs: like all human beings, we want to be loved
and are looking for affection. Wanting to be loved and appreciated at all costs in
the professional context, however, can quickly lead to dependence. Demand
the respect of others (without necessarily becoming a dictator!) and your self-esteem
will automatically grow.
Wanting to be recognized by all: if you make kindness your number one
priority, then your freedom of maneuver will be considerably diminished. The search
for recognition corresponds to a natural and legitimate need. However, an excessive
sensitivity toward what others think of you may cause you to lose your independence
and freedom of action.
Seeking to impose your ideas on your team members at all costs: give
the people around you the right to disagree, let them exercise their freedom
of thought and speech. Conflicts that are managed properly are the drivers
of evolution.
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Developing a "superman complex", seeking to control all situations:
it is preferable to avoid playing the role of the "savior" and rather choose to
participate in a collective strategy.
Seeking perfection in every action: one way to counter this tendency
is to focus on what is essential and really represents a source of added value on
the longer run.
Trying to gain sympathy by overworking oneself: assertiveness in this case
consists in acknowledging and respecting one’s limits.
Denying oneself the right to fail: telling yourself "I can’t do anything wrong"
is like forgetting that he who has never done anything wrong in life… has never done
anything at all!
Setting oneself conflicting goals: assuming responsibilities while seeking
to avoid conflicts at all costs will certainly prove to be a major cause of
disappointment. Moreover, in order to achieve ambitious, realistic and relevant goals,
you first have to set yourself a well-defined target, imagine the steps you will have
to make to get there, and check that this target is consistent with your other values
and needs, as well as your environment.
LABORATORY WORK
THOMAS – KILMAN CONFLICT MODE INSTRUMENT
Purpose. Find out your leading Conflict Management Style
Work progress. Consider situation in which tour find your wishes differing
from those of another person. How do you usually respond to such situation? On the
following pages are several pairs of statements possible behavioral responses. For
each pair, please circle the “A" or “B” statement which is most characteristic of your
own behavior. In many cases, neither “A" nor “B” statement may be very typical of
your behavior, but please select the response which you would be more likely to use.
Statements:
1. A. There are times when I let others take responsibility for solving
the problem.
B. Rather than negotiate the things on which we disagree, I try to stress
those things upon which we both agree.
2. A. I try to find a compromise solution.
B. I attempt to deal with all of his/her and my concerns.
3. A. I am usually firm in pursuing my goals.
B. I might try to soothe the other’s feelings and preserve our relationship.
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4. A. I try to find a compromise solution.
B. I sometimes sacrifice my own wishes for the wishes of the other person.
5. A. I consistently seek the other's help in working out a solution.
B. I try to do what is necessary to avoid useless tensions.
6. A. I try to avoid creating unpleasantness for myself.
B. I try to win my position.
7. A. I try to postpone the issue until I have had some time to think it over.
B. I give up some points in exchange for others.
8. A. I am usually firm in pursuing my goals.
B. I attempt to get all concerns and issues immediately out in the open.
9. A. I feel that differences are not always worth worrying about.
B. I make some effort to get my way.
10. A. I am firm in pursuing my goals.
B. I try to find a compromise solution.
11. A. I attempt to get all concerns and issues immediately out in the open.
B. I might try to soothe the other’s feelings and preserve our relationship.
12. A. I sometimes avoid taking positions which would create controversy.
B. I will let the other person have some of his/her positions if he/she
lets me have some of mine.
13. A. I propose a middle-ground.
B. I press to get my points made.
14. А. I tell the other person my ideas and ask for his/hers.
В. I try to show the other person the logic and benefits of my position.
15. А. I might try to soothe the other’s feelings and preserve our relationship.
В. I try to do what is necessary to avoid tensions.
16. А. I try not to hurt the other's feelings.
В. I try to convince the other person of the merits of my position.
17. А. I am usually firm in pursuing my goals.
В. I try to do what is necessary to avoid useless tensions.
18. А. If it makes other people happy, I might let them maintain their views.
В. I will let other people have some of their positions if they let me have
some of mine.
19. А. I attempt to get all concerns and issues immediately out in the open.
В. I try to postpone the issue until I have had some time to think it over.
20. А. I attempt to immediately work through our differences.
В. I try to find a fair combination of gains and losses for both of us.
21. А. In approaching negotiations, I try to be considerate of the other
person's wishes.
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