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Файл:Mental processes and states in general psychology (for students in the English medium). Study aid
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91
В. I always lean toward a direct discussion of the problem.
22. А. I try to find a position that is intermediate between his/hers and mine.
В. I assert my wishes.
23. А. I am very often concerned with satisfying all our wishes.
В. There are times when I let others take responsibility for solving
the problem.
24. А. If the other's position seems very important to him/her, I would try
to meet his/her wishes.
В. I try to get the other person to settle for a compromise.
25. А. I try to show the other person the logic and benefits of my position.
В. In approaching negotiations, I try to be considerate of the other
person’s wishes.
26. А. I propose a middle ground.
В. I am nearly always concerned with satisfying all our wishes.
27. А. I sometimes avoid taking positions that would create controversy.
В. If it makes other people happy. I might let them maintain their views.
28. А. I am usually firm in pursuing my goals.
В. I usually seek the other's help in working out a solution.
29. А. I propose a middle ground.
В. I feel that differences are not always worth worrying about.
30. А. I try not to hurt the other's feelings.
В. I always share the problem with the other person so that we can work
it out.
Scoring and interpreting the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument.
For each answer that matches the key corresponding to the type of behavior
in a conflict situation, one point is awarded.
The number of points scored by an individual on each scale gives an idea of
the severity of his tendency to display appropriate forms of behavior in conflict
situations. Dominant is the type (types) that scored the maximum number of points.
The key:
№
Competing
Collaborating
Compromising
Avoiding
Accommodating
1 A
B
2 B A 3 A B 4 A B 5 A
B
92
Process the results and make a conclusion.
Brief Descriptions of the Five Conflict Management Styles:
Competing is the most frequently but the least effective used way of behavior
in conflicts, it expresses in the desire to achieve the satisfaction of one's interests
at the expense of another.
Pros: goal-oriented; quick.
Cons: may breed hostility.
Accommodating means, as opposed to rivalry, sacrificing opportunity for
the sake of another.
Pros: minimizes injury when we are outmatched; relationships are maintained.
Cons: breeds resentment; exploits the weak.
Compromissing: compromise as the achievement of the result of the conflict,
achieved through mutual concessions.
№
Competing
Collaborating
Compromising
Avoiding
Accommodating
6 B A
7 B A
8 A B 9 B A
10 A B
11 A
B
12 B A
13 B A
14 B A
15 B
A
16 B
A
17 A B
18 B
A
19 A
B
20 A B
21 B
A
22 B A
23 A
B
24 B
A
25 A
B
26 B A
27 A
B
28 A B
29 A B
30 B
A
Total
93
Pros: useful in complex issues without simple solutions; all parties are equal
in power.
Cons: no one is ever really satisfied.
Avoiding is characterized by a lack of desire for cooperation, and a lack of
desire for the intended goals.
Pros: does not escalate conflict; postpones difficulty.
Cons: unaddressed problems; unresolved problems.
Collaborating: when the participants in the situation step towards an alternative
that fully satisfies the need for infection by the side.
Pros: creates mutual trust; maintains positive relationships; builds commitments.
Cons: time consuming; energy consuming.
LABORATORY WORK
ASSERTIVENESS — SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONNAIRE
The attached document, taken from the book Assertiveness (D. Chavin,
Editions ESF, 1981), allows you to perform a "self-assessment" of your attitude in
situations of conflicts (Questionnaire). The final graph reflects your tendency to
adopt each one of these attitudes. This can help us realize that we don’t always react
in the same way when faced with a difficult situation. However, we certainly display
some tendencies, the understanding of which can help us get closer to a more
harmonious way of dealing with conflicts.
Important notice: this questionnaire aims to help you gain awareness of some
personal tendencies. In no way does it offer an absolute and final assessment of your
behavioral skills.
Purpose. Find out your leading type of assertiveness.
Work progress. Answer the following questionnaire by placing a cross that
corresponds to your answer in the column below:
Rather true: if you think or act this way most of the time.
Rather false: if you don’t agree or rarely do what is described.
№
Items
Rather true
Rather false
1
I often say “yes”, when I really want to say “no”
2
I defend my rights without infringing those of others
3
I prefer to hide my thoughts and feelings if I don’t know
the person well enough
4
I’m rather authoritarian and decisive
5
It is usually easier and smarter to act through a middleman
than to act directly
94
№
Items
Rather true
Rather false
6
I’m not afraid to criticize and tell people what I think
7
I don’t dare refusing tasks that clearly don’t fit my powers
and skills
8
I’m not afraid to give my opinion, even when facing hostile
interlocutors
9
When there is a debate, I prefer to stand back to see what
will happen
10
I’m sometimes accused of contradicting myself
11
It is hard for me to listen to others
12
I know how to get close to influential people; this has been
of much use to me in the past
13
I’m considered smart and clever when it comes to relations
14
I communicate with others based on trust rather than
domination or calculation
15
I prefer not to ask the help of my colleagues, as they might
think that I’m not competent enough
16
I’m shy and I feel stuck whenever facing an unusual
situation
17
I’m said to fly off the handle easily; I get angry and others
laugh
18
I’m comfortable with face-to-face interactions
19
I often pretend; how else can you manage to get what you
want?
20
I’m talkative and I tend to interrupt others without noticing it
intime
21
I’m ambitious and I’m willing to do whatever it takes to get
to where I want
22
In general, I know who I need to see and when; this is
important if you want to succeed
23
In case of disagreement, I look for realistic compromises on
the basis of mutual interests
24
In an argument, I prefer to put my cards on the table
25
I tend to procrastinate what I do
26
I often walk away from a job without finishing it
27
In general, I present myself as I am, without hiding my
emotions
28
It takes a lot to intimidate me
29
Intimidating others is often a good way to take the power
30
When I get cheated on, I know how to take my revenge
31
To criticize someone, it is effective to blame him/her for not
following his/her own principles. He/she has to agree
32
I know how to secure personal advantages thanks to my
resourcefulness
95
№
Items
Rather true
Rather false
33
I’m able to be myself, while being socially accepted at
the same time
34
When I don’t agree, I try to make my opinion clearly heard
35
I’m always concerned not to annoy others
36
It’s hard for me to take a side or choose
37
I don’t like to be the only one with a different opinion in a
group: In this case I prefer to keep quiet
38
Public speaking does not intimidate me
39
Life is a constant struggle with changing balance of powers
40
I’m not afraid to take on dangerous and risky challenges
41
Entertaining conflicts can sometimes be more effective than
soothing tensions
42
Playing cards on the table is a good way to build confidence
43
I’m a good listener and I don’t interrupt people when
speaking
44
I always go to the end of what I have decided to do
45
I’m not afraid to express what I’m feeling
46
I know how to bring people to my ideas and make them
acceptable
47
Using a bit of flattery is still a good way to get what you
want
48
It can be difficult for me to keep my speaking time under
control
49
I know how to make ironic remarks
50
I am friendly and easygoing, but sometimes I get a little
exploited
51
I would rather observe than participate
52
I prefer to be behind the scene than to be at the forefront
53
I don’t think that manipulation is an effective solution
54
One should not be too quick in revealing one’s intentions,
this is clumsy
55
I often shock people with my propositions and thoughts
56
I would rather be a wolf than a lamb
57
Manipulating other is often the only practical way to get
what you want
58
I know how to protest effectively in general, without
excessive aggression
59
I think that problems cannot be effectively addressed without
seeking the roots of what caused these problems
60
I don’t like others to think ill of me
96
Scoring and interpreting of the questionnaire. The items of the questionnaire
all correspond to an example of a passive (flight), aggressive (attack), manipulative
or harmonious assertiveness. The table below indicates their distribution according
to the 4 considered attitudes. Every time that you answered "Rather true" to a given
question, you can add 1 point to the corresponding attitude. The total score is
indicative of your tendency to adopt the corresponding attitude.
The key:
Passive attitude
(flight)
Aggressive attitude
(attack)
Manipulation
Harmonious
assertiveness
1 4 3 2
7 6 5 8 15 10 9 14
16 11 12 18
17 20 13 23
25 21 19 24
26 28 22 27
35 29 31 33
36 30 32 34
37 39 41 38
50 40 42 43
51 48 46 44
52 49 47 45
59 55 54 53
60 56 57 58
Total
Total
Total
Total
Process the results and make a conclusion.
LIST OF QUESTIONS:
1. What is conflict? What is the characteristic of conflict in business
communication?
2. What is the structure of a conflict?
3. What is an incident? What kinds of participants of conflict do you know?
4. What are the consequences of the conflict?
5. What strategies of behavior in a conflict do you know?
6. Match conflict-management approaches with group level conditions.
Choose high, medium or low level.
97
Situation
Conflict-management approach
Competing
Accommodating
Compromising
Collabo-rating
Avoiding
Considerations
Issue importance
Relationship
importance
Relative power
Time constraints
7. Match conflict management with process of goals-setting by the group.
Choose conflict-handling style: Collaborating, Accommodating, Competing, Avoiding,
Compromising.
Appropriate situations
Conflict-handling style
· When both sets of concerns are too important to be compromised;
· When objective is to learn;
· To merge insights from people with different perspectives;
· To gain commitment by incorporating concerns into a consensus;
· To work through feelings that have interfered with a relationship
· To allow a better position to be heard and to show reasonableness;
· When issues are more important to others than yourself;
· To build social credit for later issues;
· To minimize loss when you are outmatched and losing;
· When harmony and stability are especially important;
· To allow subordinates to develop by learning from mistakes
· When quick, decisive action is vital;
· On important issues where unpopular actions need implementing;
· On issues vital to organization and when you know you are right;
· Against people who take advantage of non-competitive behaviour;
· When an issue is trivial, or more important issues are pressing;
· When you see no chance of satisfying your concerns;
· To let people ‘cool down’ and regain perspective;
· Gathering information supersedes the immediate decision;
· When others can resolve the conflict more effectively
· When goals are important, but not worth potential disruption of
more assertive modes;
· When equal power opponents are committed to mutually exclusive
goals;
· To find temporary settlements of complex issues;
· To arrive at expedient solutions under time pressure;
· As a backup when collaboration or competition is unsuccessful
98
GLOSSARY
Conflict: a clash or disagreement between individuals, groups, or ideas that
arises when they pursue opposing goals, interests, or values.
Interpersonal Conflict: disagreements or disputes that occur between two or
more people due to differences in opinions, needs, or expectations.
Intrapersonal Conflict: internal conflict within an individual, often arising
from competing desires, values, or emotions.
Organizational Conflict: conflicts that arise within organizations, typically
involving employees, departments, or management levels with differing objectives or
priorities.
Escalation: the process by which a conflict intensifies, becoming more intense,
hostile, or violent over time.
Emotional Intelligence: the ability to recognize, understand, and manage one's
own emotions and those of others, crucial for effective conflict resolution.
Power Dynamics: the distribution and exercise of influence or authority
in relationships, which can contribute to or mitigate conflicts.
Conflict Resolution: the process of managing and resolving conflicts through
various strategies, including mediation, negotiation, collaboration, etc., to achieve
a peaceful and satisfactory outcome.
TOPIC IX. THE ROLE OF PROJECTIVE TESTS
AND PERSONALITY INVENTORIES ASSESMENT
In psychological assessment, two main approaches are utilized: projective tests
and personality inventories. Both methods serve different purposes and offer unique
advantages but differ significantly in methodology and application.
PROJECTIVE METHODS
Projective methods of research belong to a special group of techniques aimed
primarily at revealing hidden, deep-seated personality manifestations. The projective
approach to personality diagnostics is based on the analysis of an individual's
interaction with an externally neutral stimulus, which becomes, due to its ambiguity
and weak structuring, a trigger for projection — a process involving the conscious or
unconscious transfer by the subject of their own properties and states in the form of
imaginative products and fantasies onto the external world.
99
Projection first received its most comprehensive development within
psychoanalysis. Freud considered it one of the leading defense mechanisms of the
ego. He stated that "hostility about which one does not want to know" is transferred
from internal perception to the external world, thereby being removed from oneself
and attributed to others. In other words, Freud initially viewed projection as
a defensive mechanism that allows individuals to avoid recognizing aggressive
tendencies by projecting them outwardly. While projective psychodiagnostics
acknowledges and even emphasizes the importance of diagnosing defense mechanisms,
the primary focus is on identifying how the testee's personality influences the testing
results. At the same time, significant attention is also paid to the influence of the
experimenter's personality on the testing procedure. Therefore, in psychodiagnostics,
projection is understood as both a process and a mechanism of interaction between
the testee and "neutral", unstructured or weakly structured material. During this
interaction, the subject engages in self-structuring and assimilation of the external
world (object) into their inner world, imbuing the object with their thoughts, feelings,
values, meanings, etc. As a result, the outcome (product) of the testee's activity —
such as drawings, narratives, interpretations — bears the imprint (mold) of their
personality, allowing for a holistic understanding of it.
Strengths of Projective Tests
1. Exploration of Unconscious Dynamics: projective tests excel at accessing
deeper layers of the psyche, revealing hidden emotions, motivations, and conflicts.
2. Flexibility: their open-ended nature provides rich qualitative data, which can
be particularly useful when working with children, nonverbal individuals, or those
from diverse cultural backgrounds.
3. Creativity: participants often engage imaginatively with the materials,
offering insightful narratives or interpretations that might otherwise go undiscovered.
Challenges of Projective Tests
1. Subjectivity: interpretation is highly dependent on the clinician's expertise
and perspective, which can lead to variability in findings.
2. Lack of Standardization: without clear scoring guidelines, comparing results
across studies or practitioners becomes challenging.
3. Ethical Considerations: some participants may feel uneasy sharing intimate
details indirectly, raising concerns about informed consent and confidentiality.
Projective tests are psychological tools designed to assess personality traits,
emotions, and cognitive processes indirectly through the interpretation of ambiguous
stimuli. These tests can be classified into several categories based on the type of
response required from the participant. Below is a classification of projective tests
along with examples.
100
1. Association Techniques
These tests involve presenting participants with stimuli, such as words or
images, and asking them to respond quickly with the first thing that comes to mind.
This method assumes that responses reflect underlying attitudes, motivations, or
conflicts.
Examples:
– Rorschach Inkblot Test: participants interpret ambiguous ink blots, and their
responses are analyzed for content, form, and emotional tone;
– Word Association Test: participants are given a list of words and asked to
provide the first word that comes to mind after hearing each stimulus word.
2. Construction Techniques
Participants are asked to create something, often using materials provided
during the test. Their creations are then analyzed for themes, symbols, and patterns
that may reveal aspects of their personality or emotional state.
Examples:
– Draw-A-Person Test (DAP): individuals draw a person, and the drawing is
evaluated for details like size, placement, and proportionality, which may indicate
self-perception and interpersonal relationships;
– House-Tree-Person Test (HTP): participants draw a house, tree, and person,
and these drawings are interpreted for indicators of emotional stability, security, and
social adjustment.
3. Completion Techniques
In these tests, participants complete incomplete sentences, stories, or scenarios.
The way they finish the task provides insight into their thought processes, beliefs, and
motivations.
Examples:
– Sentence Completion Test: participants fill in the blanks of incomplete
sentences, reflecting their perceptions of themselves and their environment;
– Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): participants view ambiguous pictures
and construct stories about what might be happening, shedding light on their needs,
motives, and conflicts.
4. Expressive Techniques
These tests encourage free expression, allowing participants to express their
feelings and thoughts without restrictions. The focus is on the symbolic meaning
behind their expressions.
Examples:
– Art Therapy: participants engage in artistic activities, and their artwork is
examined for themes related to personal experiences and emotions;
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