Добавил:
ivanov666
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:Methodology of Scientific and Project Activities. Учебное пособие для обучающихся в магистратуре
.pdf
МИНИСТЕРСТВО НАУКИ И ВЫСШЕГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ
РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ
Федеральное государственное автономное образовательное
учреждение высшего образования
«ЮЖНЫЙ ФЕДЕРАЛЬНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ»
Инженерно-технологическая академия
Е. В. ПАПЧЕНКО
Т. А. НЕЧАЕВА
METHODOLOGY OF SCIENTIFIC
AND PROJECT ACTIVITIES
Учебное пособие
для обучающихся в магистратуре
Ростов-на-Дону – Таганрог
Издательство Южного федерального университета
2020
УДК 1:001 (075.8)+001.89 (075.8)
ББК 87.25я73+72.4я73
П179
Печатается по решению кафедры философии Института управления
в экономических, экологических и социальных системах Южного
федерального университета (протокол № 6 от 17 января 2020 г.)
Рецензенты:
доктор философских наук, профессор, заведующий кафедрой
философии Института управления в экономических, экологических и
социальных системах Южного федерального университета И. В. Лысак
доктор философских наук, профессор, заслуженный работник
высшей школы Российской Федерации, заведующий кафедрой философии
и мировых религий Донского государственного технического университета
Е. Е. Несмеянов
Папченко, Е. В.
П179 Methodology of Scientific and Project Activities : учебное пособие
для обучающихся в магистратуре / Е. В. Папченко, Т. А. Нечаева ;
Южный федеральный университет. – Ростов-на-Дону ; Таганрог :
Издательство Южного федерального университета, 2020. – 105 с.
ISBN 978-5-9275-3725-9
Предлагаемое вниманию читателей учебное пособие представляет собой
систематическое изложение современных моделей роста научного знания. В нем
анализируются модель роста научного знания К. Поппера, методология
исследовательских программ И. Лакатоса, структура научных революций
Т. Куна, методологический анархизм П. Фейерабенда, эволюционная
эпистемология Ст. Тулмина. В работе рассматриваются основные формы бытия
науки, классификация приемов и методов научного исследования в соотнесении
с формами знания (фактами, гипотезой, теорией). В пособии уделяется внимание
визуализации представленного материала.
УДК 1:001(075.8)+001.89(075.8)
ББК 87.25я73+72.4я73
ISBN 978-5-9275-3725-9
© Южный федеральный университет, 2020
© Папченко Е. В., Нечаева Т. А., 2020
© Оформление. Макет. Издательство
Южного федерального университета, 2020
CONTENT
Topic 1. BASIC FORMS OF BEING OF SCIENCE ............................................. 4
1. Science as a cognitive activity ................................................................................ 4
2. Science as a system of developing knowledge ...................................................... 10
3. Science as a social institution ............................................................................... 13
Control unit .............................................................................................................. 20
Main sources ............................................................................................................ 20
Additional sources .................................................................................................... 20
Topic 2. SPECIFICITY OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE ................................ 22
1. Forms of scientific knowledge: scientific fact, problem, hypothesis, theory ......... 22
2. Techniques and methods of scientific research ..................................................... 39
Control unit .............................................................................................................. 49
Main sources ............................................................................................................ 49
Additional sources .................................................................................................... 49
Topic 3. MODELS OF THE GROWTH OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE...... 51
1. The growth of scientific knowledge in the model of K. Popper ............................ 51
2. Methodology of research programs I. Lakatos ...................................................... 59
3. The structure of scientific revolutions T. Kuhn ..................................................... 65
4. Methodological anarchism of P. Feyerabend ........................................................ 73
5. Evolutionary Epistemology of St. Tulmin ............................................................ 85
Control unit .............................................................................................................. 94
Main sources ............................................................................................................ 94
Additional sources .................................................................................................... 94
GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................ 97
4
Topic 1. BASIC FORMS OF BEING OF SCIENCE
1. Science as a cognitive activity.
2. Science as a system of developing knowledge.
3. Science as a social institution.
1. Science as a cognitive activity
The attitude of a person has toward science is a multidimensional problem,
among which the most often asked question is: what does science give to a
person? But this is not all. We are challenged in other ways too. Does the person
shape the science or does the science inform our understanding of the world?
While raw scientific results are correct, can the human interpretation of them be
biased or inaccurate? Just because we can investigate a particular scientific
question, does that mean we necessarily should? Answering these questions
potentially points to improvements in living conditions, the success of
technological progress, and in medicine, just to name a few. Human needs are
growing, and their comfort is provided or by new scientific achievements.
However, at the same time, the dangers that arise from the use of scientific
knowledge are also recognized. This, for instance, might include the production
of weapons of mass destruction, be they biological or explosive. There may be a
dark side to the pursuit of science.
Quite often, there are perspectives which may threaten human life and
livelihood. But is may also bring about much good. Science can change not only
the way people live, but also the person himself. Of course, it is impossible and
unnecessary to stop scientific research, but we must be aware of the possible
dangers associated with it. Science alone does not provide a remedy for these
dangers.
Science, as a special type of human activity, aimesat understanding the
surrounding reality It can be a complex phenomenon. Decoupling science from
its action or activity, we must also recognize science as a special sphere of
human cognitive activity. It has a specific feature that distinguishes it from other
forms of cognitive activity. In analyzing science, we should take into
consideration the existing institutionalization in the society. Thus, science is as
an important social institution. institution. Science is a special sphere of human
culture if we consider it as a special type of human activity in culture.
1. Science as a cognitive activity
5
In one of its most important forms, the processes of engaging in science is
a cognitive activity. Scientific knowledge of the world reflects human needs and
is driven by human curiosity. Its origin is in ordinary, spontaneous-empirical
knowledge. It is the process of which a person masters the essence and properties
of those objects that he used in everyday life. We’re talking about logic and the
testing of theories. The result of such spontaneous empirical knowledge was
knowledge based on ordinary experience and common sense. However, as
human society was developing, at times human knowledge overcame the
boundaries of common sense, which became unable to solve problems that went
beyond the scope of everyday experience. As a result, knowledge and the
application of it, having emerged from practice, gradually began to outstrip it in
the development of objects of the surrounding reality. Science is a special
cognitive activity. Instead of a simple study of the essence and properties of
objects, phenomena, and processes, it proceeds to construct theoretical models
using abstract and ideal theoretical objects. The validity of the theoretical model
is proved not so much directly by practice, but by a specially developed
experimental scientific method. Logical consequences derived from empirically
verifiable statements about the theoretical model are directly aligned with the
results of the experiments performed. The results of such experiments are used to
prove whether the theoretical model corresponds to reality or not. In order to
verify the validity of theoretical models in science, special theoretical and
empirical methods are used (they will be discussed later) as well as a variety of
material and technical tools of modern science. Observation, measurement and
complex experimental equipment among others. The existence of a special
methodology that allows science to test its conclusions in relation to objects that
have not yet been mastered in modern social practice, distinguishes science from
other types of cognitive activity. In addition, among the main specifying features
of science as a cognitive activity, it is also necessary to indicate the orientation to
the objective nature of the regularities of the matter studied. The discovery of the
objective laws of reality, made through science and due to its essentialist
orientation, it makes possible for science to both explain the surrounding reality
and predict the most complex processes of its development. Science can discover
un known phenomena. It does scientific forecasts and addresses scenarios which
contribute to human adaptation to changing environmental conditions. It is
important for predicting earthquakes, calculating the trajectory of small celestial
bodies and others. Thus, among the most important properties of science as a
Topic 1. Basic forms of being of science
6
cognitive activity are objectivity and focusing on the discovery of new
phenomena and processes. It is necessary to point out the general significance of
the conclusions obtained by science, their inter – subjectivity, and the
fundamental reproducibility of the conclusions obtained in and by science.
However, appreciating the potential part of science as a cognitive activity,
it is necessary to recognize that a purely objective approach to knowledge of the
reality is not absolute and it is possible only while studying certain aspects of the
field. It is necessary to recognize the subjective side of human nature, including
emotions, agendas and motivation. As a result, alongside with scientific methods
of cognition, other principles, techniques and methods that are called extrascientific in modern literature can be used in human cognitive activity.
Schema 1.1
BASIC FORMS OF BEING OF SCIENCE
BASIC FORMS
OF BEING OF SCIENCE
Science
as a cognitive activity
Science as a system of
developing knowledge
Science
as a social institution
1. Science as a cognitive activity
7
Schema 1.2
FUNCTIONS OF SCIENCE
FUNCTIONS OF SCIENCE
1. Cultural and ideological
function of science
2 Cognitive function of science
3. Technological function
of science
4. Science as a factor
of social regulation
5. The projective-constructive
function of science
Science ‒ is a special type of cognitive activity aimed at developing
objective, systemically organized and grounded knowledge about the world.
The definition of science is supplemented by a new image of science, which
seeks to identify a different hypostasis of science – science as a social
institution that ensures the functioning of scientific cognitive activity.
Topic 1. Basic forms of being of science
8
Schema 1.3
THE MAIN STAGES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE
THE MAIN STAGES
OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE
1. The genesis of science.
3. Formation of the first forms of theoretical science in
antiquity.
4. Medieval science.
5. New time and the formation of experimental science;
science in the proper sense of the word:
6. Formation of science as a professional activity.
The emergence of the disciplinary organized science.
2. Pre-science.
‒ classical natural science and
its methodology;
‒ revolution in natural science
of the XIX‒XX centuries and
the formation of ideas and
methods of non-classical
science.
7. Formation of technical sciences.
1. Science as a cognitive activity
9
Schema 1.4
SCIENCE: REGULARITIES OF THE DEVELOPMENT
(based on V. P. Kokhanovsky, T. G. Leshkevich, T. P. Matyash, T. B. Fathi)
SCIENCE: REGULARITIES OF THE DEVELOPMENT
Сontinuity in the development of science
Unity of quantitative and qualitative changes in the development
of science
Tendencies of differentiation and integration of Sciences
Interaction methods
The interaction of science
A distinct expansion processes of mathematization and
computerization
Further theorization of science and penetration of dialectization
High rates of science development
Openness to criticism, elimination of monopolies, the prohibition
of dogmatism
Topic 1. Basic forms of being of science
10
2. Science as a system of developing knowledge
Considering science as a system of developing knowledge, we should refer
to the work of V.J. Kelle «Science as a phenomenon of culture». Не says that
«science as a system of developing knowledge differs from all cultural
phenomena primarily in the idea that its content is objective truth, i.e. that the
content of scientific knowledge does not depend on a person, on humanity. This
knowledge reveals the objective world, its laws and properties, its connections
and relationships». At the same time, the content of scientific knowledge does
not depend on the «randomness» of its origin, on the conditions in which it
appeared, on the nature of its future application in public practice. Considering it
this way, we do not relate it to the subject, but only to the object. Only the form
of expressing knowledge is subjective, but not the content. Since the goal of
science is truth, which is independent of human content, science strives to
exclude subjective aspects from the content of scientific knowledge as
completely as possible.
Phenomenologically, science exists in the society, so it is included in the
system of a historically defined culture interacting with its various components.
The significance of the socio-cultural form of knowledge representation is the
following: it should be a means of integrating scientific knowledge into the
existing system of culture. One of the features of the Ancient Egypt culture was
the existence of pre-science. It was characterized by subordination to some needs
(in mathematics it is measurement and counting; the compilation of calendars
and the maintenance of religious cults – astronomy, technical improvements in
tools of production and construction and mechanics, etc.); the empirical nature of
the origin of knowledge, as well as caste and closeness of the scientific
community.
Only the ancient Greek culture contributed to the development of the
theoretical form of knowledge representation. Ancient Greek philosophers
greatly contributed to the transfer of scientific knowledge from the East to
Ancient Greece, which significantly advanced the ancient Greek education and
culture. A. S. Nadtochaev emphasizes that an: «It also created the prerequisites
for its further independent development. However, the Milesian thinkers not only
assimilated and made available to the Greeks the foundations of scientific
knowledge developed by the more culturally developed peoples of the East, but
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]