Добавил:
ivanov666
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:Methodology of Scientific and Project Activities. Учебное пособие для обучающихся в магистратуре
.pdf
5. Evolutionary Epistemology of St. Tulmin
91
Schema 3.9
MODELS OF THE GROWTH OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
THE GROWTH OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
IN THE MODEL OF K. POPPER
In his work «The Logic of Scientific Discovery» K. Popper analyzes
the methodological techniques (rules) for the study of scientific
theories and believes that these techniques and rules represent a
logical structure due to the psychological expectation to find in the
object under study, process, etc. a certain pattern.
According to K. Popper, these rules can be called the rules of the
«game» called «empirical science». According to K. Popper the
scientific game, is carried out correctly if the progress of cognition is
ensured, if successive theories become more and more generalized, i.e.
their «empirical content» increases.
K. Popper, instead of the theory of verification, put forward the theory
of falsification based on the fact during the experimental verification
any fact will reject the theory.
METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH PROGRAMS I. LAKATOS
This position corresponds the critical-rationalistic concept of science.
I. Lakatosis arguing about what the fundamental unit of evaluation of
science is. In the work «Methodology of research programs», he
claims that such unit is the research program:
‒ conventionally accepted, resulting in a non-refutable «hard core»;
‒ positive heuristics, the content of which is based on the arguments
and assumptions aimed at further changing and developing «refutable
variants» of the research program;
‒ set by the research program, positive heuristics helps the scientist
make a choice from a variety of anomalies;
‒ and, finally, a «protective belt» consisting of auxiliary hypotheses,
and, which is considered as some kind of protection. The main
function of the protective belt is the preservation of the core which can
completely transform to protect it.
Topic 3. Models of the growth of scientific knowledge
92
Schema 3.9. Continuation
THE STRUCTURE OF SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS T. KUHN
In the work «The Structure of Scientific Revolutions»,
Thomas S. Kuhn considers science as a long stage of cumulative
development, at certain moments interrupted by scientific
revolutions – non-cumulative outbursts.
The development of scientific knowledge had proceeded in
accordance with «normal science» until the period of the scientific
revolution. Thomas S. Kuhn believes that scientists within the
framework of «normal science» continue developing theories, the
existence of which the paradigm assumes.
The issue of the authenticity of scientific achievements is solved as
follows. Scientific achievements should be explained by novelty and
openness. Achievements with these two characteristics
Thomas S. Kuhn calls paradigms.
METHODOLOGICAL ANARCHISM OF P. FEYERABEND
American philosopher of science P. Feyerabend in his scientific work
«Against Method: Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge»
makes a decisive step towards the rationalist tradition in philosophy of
science and offers an alternative point of view ‒ «epistemological
anarchism».
At the same time, P. Feyerabend examines methodological issues of
science from the point of view of the influence of various social
factors on science. P. Feyerabend proposes to analyze science from the
standpoint of epistemological anarchism.
American philosopher St. Toulmin offered the theory of the
evolutionary development of science. To justify his point of view,
St. Toulmin suggested the trilogy on which he based his work
«Human Understanding». The initial premise of this work is the
evolutionary biological theory of Ch. Darwin.
EVOLUTIONARY EPISTEMOLOGY OF ST. TULMIN
5. Evolutionary Epistemology of St. Tulmin
93
Schema 3.10
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE ‒ is a philosophical direction, the
main problem of which is science as an epistemological and sociocultural phenomenon.
Periods:
classical positivism (O. Cont, J. S. Mill, G. Spencer etc.)
empiriocriticism (machism) (E. Mach, R. Avenarius etc.)
neopositivism (M. Schlik, R. Carnap etc.)
postpositivism, the modern stage (K. Popper, T. Kuhn, I. Lakatos,
M. Polani etc.)
Topic 3. Models of the growth of scientific knowledge
94
CONTROL UNIT
1. Explain the content of the third world in K. Popper’s model of scientific’s
growth of knowledge.
2. Give a characteristic of the features of the historical dynamics of scientific
knowledge, developed by T. Kuhn.
3. Explain T. Kuhn’s idea of normal and extraordinary science.
4. Expand the content of the concept of «research program», developed by
I. Lakatos.
5. Describe the negative and positive heuristics.
6. Explain the epistemological position of P. Feyerabend.
7. What is meant by formalization in the methodology of science?
MAIN SOURCES
1. Kokhanovskiy, V. P., Leshkevich, T. G., Matyash, T. P., Fathi, T. B.
Foundations of the philosophy of science [Text] / V. P. Kokhanovskiy,
T. G. Leshkevich, T. P. Matyash, T. B. Fathi. – Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix,
2007. – 608 p.
2. Lebedev, S. A. Methodology of scientific knowledge: a textbook for
universities [Text] / S. A. Lebedev. – Moscow: Yurayt Publishing House,
2020. – 153 p.
3. Mikeshina, L. A. Philosophy of Science: Contemporary Epistemology.
Scientific knowledge in the dynamics of culture. Scientific research
methodology [Text] / L. A. Mikeshina. – Moscow: Progress-Tradition:
MPSI: Flinta, 2005. – 464 p.
4. Nikiforov, A. L. Philosophy and History of Science: Textbook [Text] //
A. L. Nikiforov. – Moscow: Infra-M, 2018. – 384 p.
ADDITIONAL SOURCES
1. Bazhin, V. Y. Dynamics of evolutionary processes of science [Text] /
V. Y. Bazhin // Approbation. – 2013. – No. 1 (4). – P. 40‒43.
2. Bazhin, V. Y. Evolutionary processes and dynamics of science [Text] /
V. Y. Bazhin // Actual problems of the humanities and natural sciences. –
2013. – No.3. – P. 148‒151.
Additional sources
95
3. Dorozhkin, A. M., Sakharova, A. V. Obvious and improbable in Kuhnian
normal science // Epistemology and philosophy of science. – 2020. –
Part 57. – No. 2. – P. 142‒161.
4. Feyerabend, P. Against the method. Essay on the anarchist theory of
knowledge [Text] / Paul Feyerabend; per. from English A. L. Nikiforov. –
Moscow: AST: AST MOSCOW; KEEPER, 2007. – 413 p.
5. Gorelov, N. A. Methodology of scientific research: textbook and workshop
for universities [Теxt] / N. A. Gorelov, D. V. Kruglov, O. N. Korableva. –
Moscow: Yurayt Publishing House, 2020. – 365 p.
6. Kasavin, I. T., Porus, V. N. Turning back to Kuhn: is normal science
conservative? [Text] / I. T. Kasavin, V. N. Porus // Epistemology and
philosophy of science. – 2020. – Part. 57. – No.1. – P. 6‒19.
7. Kelle, V. Zh., Mirskaya, E .Z., Kugel, S. A. Social dynamics of modern
science [Text] / V. Zh. Kelle, E. Z. Mirskaya, S. A. Kugel. – Moscow:
Academic Research and Publishing, Production, Printing and Book
Distribution Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences «Publishing
House "Science"», 1995. – 319 p.
8. Kotlyarova, V. V. Rational reconstruction of the history of science in post-
positivism and its significance for post-non-classical science [Text] /
V. V. Kotlyarova // Society: philosophy, history, culture. – 2020. –
No.4 (72). – P. 20‒24.
9. Kuhn, T. The structure of scientific revolutions [Text] / T. Kuhn; With an
introductory article and additions 1969 year. – Moscow: Progress, 1977. –
300 p.
10. Nazaretyan, A. P. Non-linear future. Megahistorical, synergetic and
cultural-psychological prerequisites for global forecasting [Text] /
A. P. Nazaretyan. – Moscow: Institute of Oriental Studies RAS. – 437 p.
11. Plotnikov, V. N. Methodology of Philosophy of Science as the Basis
for Researching the Dynamics of Cultural Paradigms [Text] /
V. N. Plotnikov // Polythematic network electronic scientific journal of the
Kuban State Agrarian University. – 2014. – No.99. – P. 1294–1303.
12. Popper, K. Logic and the growth of scientific knowledge. Selected
works [Text] / K. Popper. Translations from English. Compilation, general
edition and introductory article by V. N. Sadovsky. – Moscow: Progress,
1983. – 605 p.
Topic 3. Models of the growth of scientific knowledge
96
13. Porus, V. N. The price of «flexible rationality» (on the philosophy of
science of St. Toulmin) [Text] / V. N. Porus // Philosophy of Science. –
1999. – T. 5. – No.1. – P. 228‒245.
14. Tulmin, St. Conceptual revolutions in science [Text] / St. Tulmin //
Structure and Development of Science. From Boston Studies in
Philosophy of Science. – Moscow: Progress, 1978. – P. 170–189.
15. Tulmin, St. Does the distinction between normal and revolutionary science
stand up to criticism? [Text] / St. Tulmin // Issue. 5: Philosophy of Science
in Search of New Paths. – Moscow: IP RAS, 1999. –
P. 246‒257.
16. Tulmin, St. History, practice and the «third world» (difficulties of the
methodology of Lakatos) [Text] / St. Tulmin // Issue. 5: Philosophy of
Science in Search of New Paths. – Moscow: IP RAS, 1999. –
P. 258–280.
17. Zhukova, E. A. Conceptual model of nonlinear dynamics of science:
information-synergetic approach [Text] / Е. А. Zhukova // Bulletin of the
Tomsk State Pedagogical University. – 2013. No.9 (137). – P. 197–206.
97
GLOSSARY
A SCIENTIST IS
‒ a person who has received a professional
education and is professionally engaged in scientific
(scientific and pedagogical) activities.
ABSTRACTION
‒ an important technique of scientific thinking is
abstraction. It is the mental isolation of individual
properties, signs, and relations of the subject that
are of interest to the cognizing the subject. It is
simultaneous distraction from other properties,
signs, and relations that are not essential for this
cognitive activity.
ANALOGY
‒ analogy is widely used in science (from the Greek
analogia – correspondence, similarity). When
reasoning by analogy, the knowledge obtained by
studying a certain object is transferred to a less
studied object that is similar in essential properties.
ANALYSIS
‒ analysis (from the Greek. analysis –
decomposition) is the division of the object into its
component parts, sides, development trends for the
purpose of their separate study.
ANTISCIENTISM
‒ (from Greek – against and Lat. scientia – science)
is science that focuses on the critical assessment of
science and on understanding its role in the system
of culture.
AXIOMATIC
METHOD
‒ is a method of constructing theories in which
axioms and statements derived from them are used
in philosophical propositions. Despite the fact that
the concepts of axioms, postulates and definitions
are worked out in detail by Aristotle, for the first
time the axiomatic method appeared in the work of
Euclid «The Beginning». First of all, it is possible to
classify axioms, both by their formulations and their
methodological status (the status of a statement,
assumption, linguistic agreement on the desired use
of terms). Moreover, the identification of the status
Glossary
98
of the axiom is mandatory, since it is possible to
change the content of the axiomatic theory without
changing the wording and semantics of the axiom.
This method is currently being supplemented by the
model-theoretic method.
DEDUCTION
‒ general scientific techniques include induction
(movement from private knowledge to General
knowledge) and deduction (movement from General
knowledge to particular knowledge).
EMPIRICAL AND
THEORETICAL
TYPES
‒ of scientific knowledge. The difference between
them is based on the empirical and theoretical
research, related to each other in the integral
structure of scientific knowledge. Empirical
research encourages the growth of theoretical
research based on observational and experimental
data. At the same time, theoretical research directs
empirical research, opening up new perspectives for
explaining and anticipating facts.
EXPERIMENT
‒ the next main method of empirical scientific
knowledge is experiment (from lat. experimentum –
experience, test). It is the study of an object under
controlled conditions. This is one of the greatest
tools of scientific work.
FACT
‒ fact (Latin: factum – done, accomplished) refers
to empirical knowledge.
FALSIFIABILITY
‒ is the possibility of identifying the conditions for
the implementation of falsification as a standard
methodological procedure. K. Popper contrasts the
principle of falsifiability with the principle of
verifiability. This position is explained by the fact
that not the desire to search for supporting
examples, but the focus on a decisive critical test of
their statements is a sign of a genuine science.
FALSIFICATION
‒ (from Lat. Falsus – false and facio – I do) is a way
of refuting (establishing falsity) of a scientific
statement by means of its empirical verification.
Glossary
99
HYPOTHESIS
‒ a hipothesis (gr. Hypothesis – basis, assumption)
is a scientific assumption that is the subject to
verification, as a result of which its truth or falsity is
established.
HYPOTHETICALDEDUCTIVE
METHOD
‒ is putting forward statements as hypotheses.
Testing of hypothesis is the essence of this method.
If it is a reasonable hypothesis, it should be
evaluated. The analysis of the history of the
methodology of science shows that the
hypothetical-deductive method is formed in contrast
to both the deductive-rationalistic concept of
science and the empirical-inductivist point of view
on the formation of scientific knowledge. Recently,
the methodology of science has been intensively
developing the approach to the hypotheticaldeductive method, which takes into account the
processes of improvement and development of
hypothetical constructions of science, comparing
them with empirical data.
IDEALS AND NORMS
OF SCIENCE
‒ of science are ideas about the values and goals of
scientific activity and about the ways to achieve
them. Modern methodology considers the
functioning of science, firstly, as a cognitive
activity; secondly, as a social institution. There are
cognitive ideals and norms that regulate the process
of reproducing an object in various forms of
scientific knowledge, and social norms that fix the
role and value of science for public life at a
particular stage of historical development, allowing
building the communication process in the scientific
community, etc.
INDUCTION
‒ general scientific techniques include induction
(movement from private knowledge to General
knowledge) and deduction (movement from General
knowledge to particular knowledge).
Glossary
100
INVISIBLE COLLEGE
‒ is a group of scientists who are not
institutionalized and who study a common problem
in a coordinated manner. The analysis of the
research confirmed the existence of groups with
fairly stable parameters and patterns of the
development of such groups as a general form of
formation of new research areas and specialties. The
phases of the scientific specialty are the following:
the normal phase (the period of relatively scattered
work on a similar problem); the phase of formation
and development of the network, which is
characterized by intellectual and organizational
changes resulting in the unification of researchers;
the phase of intensive development, which is
characterized by the actions of a cohesive group; the
phase of institutionalization, which is the stage at
which scientific results ensure the recognition of the
scientific community.
METHOD
‒ method (from the Greek. methodos – the way of
research, theory, teaching) – a set of techniques,
rules, principles, operations of theoretical
development of reality.
METHODOLOGY
‒ in various spheres of spiritual and practical
activity, it is a type of rational-reflexive
consciousness. The purpose of this process is both
the study and the construction of methods. In order
to clarify the understanding of the very idea of the
doctrine of the method as a way to knowledge, it is
necessary to pay attention to the fact that the
methodology was formed and developed in the
bosom of philosophy, which acts as a rationaltheoretical form of worldview. In the modern
complex differentiated methodology, there is a
hierarchy of methodological concepts of different
degrees of development and constructiveness,
different levels and breadth of coverage
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]