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Файл:Methodology of Scientific and Project Activities. Учебное пособие для обучающихся в магистратуре
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1. Forms of scientific knowledge: scientific fact, problem, hypothesis, theory
31
Schema 2.3
THEORY
THEORY
The most complex and developed form of scientific knowledge,
which gives a holistic representation of the natural and essential
connections of a certain area of reality, is theory.
Theory ‒ a theory is a form of organized reliable knowledge about
a certain subject area that systematically describes, explains and
predicts the functioning and development of objects related to this
area.
In modern methodology of science, the following main
components of the theory are the following:
1. initial empirical basis,
which includes a set of facts
recorded in this field. They are
achieved during observations
and experiments and require
theoretical explanation;
2. initial theoretical basis – a
set of primary assumptions,
postulates, axioms, General
laws of the theory describing
the idealized object of the
theory;
3. logic of theory – set of rules
of logical inference and proofs
that are acceptable within the
framework of the theory;
4. set of statements derived
from theory with their proofs,
which makes up the main body
of theoretical knowledge.
Topic 2. Specificity of scientific knowledge
32
Schema 2.4
SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
Object of
knowledge
The subject of
knowledge
Method of
cognition
Cognition means
Language of
science
Credibility
Reflection
Knowledge
organization form
Cognitive
actions
Science
community
Scientist
personality
Rationality
Types of
rationality
Subject of
cognition
1. Forms of scientific knowledge: scientific fact, problem, hypothesis, theory
33
Schema 2.5
FALSIFIABILITY
FALSIFIABILITY
Falsifiability – is the possibility of identifying the
conditions for the implementation of falsification as a
standard methodological procedure.
The falsifiability captures the tentative nature of
scientific hypotheses.
By limiting the universality of previous knowledge,
as well as identifying the conditions under which it
is possible to preserve the partial universality of a
statement about laws, the property of falsifiability
provides a relatively discontinuous nature of the
development of scientific knowledge.
K. Popper contrasts the principle of falsifiability with
the principle of verifiability.
Topic 2. Specificity of scientific knowledge
34
Schema 2.6
EMPIRICAL AND THEORETICAL TYPES
EMPIRICAL AND THEORETICAL TYPES
The difference between them is based on the empirical and
theoretical research, related to each other in the integral structure
of scientific knowledge.
The distinction between these levels is carried out according to
several criteria:
The first criterion of distinction is based on the nature
of the research subject.
The second criterion of distinction is based on the type
of research tools used.
The third criterion is based on the research methods
used. At each level of scientific knowledge, specific
methods are used.
The above three criteria – by the subject of research, by means of
knowledge used, and by research methods used-allow us to
distinguish between the empirical and theoretical levels of science.
However, this distinction does not mean that these levels are
separated from each other.
1. Forms of scientific knowledge: scientific fact, problem, hypothesis, theory
35
Schema 2.7
МЕТHEORETICAL LEVEL OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGET
(based on V. S. Stepin)
МЕТHEORETICAL LEVEL
OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGET
Ideals and norms of scientific knowledge – of science
are ideas about the values and goals of scientific activity
and about the ways to achieve them.
Scientific picture of the world – is formed with the
help of fundamental concepts and principles of science
at a certain stage of its historical development, a holistic
image of the subject of scientific research, expressed
through the main system-structural characteristics.
Philosophical foundations of science – philosophical
ideas and principles, which are a system that server as a
value orientation, on the basis of which both the ideals
and norms of science and the presentation of the
scientific picture of the world are substantiated.
Topic 2. Specificity of scientific knowledge
36
Schema 2.8
THE STRUCTURE OF THE SCIENTIFIC PICTURE OF THE WORLD
(based on V. P. Kokhanovsky, T. G. Leshkevich, T. P. Matyash, T. B. Fathi)
SCIENTIFIC PICTURE OF THE WORLD
Scientific picture of the world – is formed with the help of
fundamental concepts and principles of science at a certain stage
of its historical development, a holistic image of the subject of
scientific research, expressed through the main system-structural
characteristics.
‒ the central theoretical core;
The structure of the scientific picture of the world:
‒ fundamental assumptions;
‒ private theoretical models.
Objectivity is the
main criterion on
which the scientific
picture of the world
is based.
1. Forms of scientific knowledge: scientific fact, problem, hypothesis, theory
37
Schema 2.9
SCIENTIFIC PICTURE OF THE WORLD
SCIENTIFIC PICTURE OF THE WORLD
In the process of research,
scientific worldviews
perform the following
functions:
‒ they systematize
scientific knowledge,
combining it into complex
wholes;
‒ they are research
programs that determine
the strategy of scientific
knowledge;
‒ they ensure the
objectification of scientific
knowledge, their
attribution to the object
under study and their
inclusion in culture.
The distinction between
disciplinary images of
science allows you to
select the basic forms of
the scientific world:
‒ scientific picture of the
world;
‒ social and naturalscientific picture of the
world;
‒ special scientific picture
of the world.
Topic 2. Specificity of scientific knowledge
38
Schema 2.10
EVOLUTION OF THE MODERN
SCIENTIFIC PICTURE OF THE WORLD
(based on V. P. Kokhanovsky, T. G. Leshkevich, T. P. Matyash, T. B. Fathi)
EVOLUTION OF THE MODERN SCIENTIFIC PICTURE
OF THE WORLD
Scientific picture of the world – is formed with the help of
fundamental concepts and principles of science at a certain stage
of its historical development, a holistic image of the subject of
scientific research, expressed through the main system-structural
characteristics.
‒ classical picture of the world;
Evolution of the modern scientific picture of the world:
‒ non-classical picture of the world;
‒ post-non-classical picture of the world.
2. Techniques and methods of scientific research
39
2. Techniques and methods of scientific research
The necessary condition for the scientific nature of any cognitive activity
is the presence of special ways of obtaining knowledge, namely, techniques,
methods and forms of scientific knowledge.
«Methods of scientific knowledge are considered to be General
epistemological and logical operations that a person uses at any stage of the
cognitive scientific process. Among the techniques are the processes of analysis
and synthesis»1.
Analysis (from the Greek. analysis – decomposition) is the division
of the object into its component parts, sides, development trends for
the purpose of their separate study.
This General technique often becomes a special method of research – in
mathematical analysis, social analysis. The importance of analysis in the process
of scientific knowledge is probably best shown by the fact that the phrase
«scientific analysis» has become synonymous with scientific research in
General.
Analysis is closely related to synthesis (from the Greek. Synthesis –
connection). It is the connection of various objects or previously selected parts
into a single whole, into a system.
An important technique of scientific thinking is abstraction. It is the
mental isolation of individual properties, signs, and relations of the subject that
are of interest to the cognizing the subject. It is simultaneous distraction from
other properties, signs, and relations that are not essential for this cognitive
activity.
For a specific medical study, the specific place of birth of a person may be
completely unimportant, while the state of his health, diseases suffered in
childhood, and hereditary diseases will be important. Moreover, for sociological
studies, it may be indifferent what diseases the grandmother of the interviewed
subject suffered, but the place of his birth may play an important role. Various
types of abstraction are used in science. The so-called identification abstraction
is often used in a General concept of a class of homogeneous objects. It is
formed by highlighting common properties inherent in this class. For example, it
1
Papchenko E. V., Titarenko I. N. Philosophy of Science: General Problems. Textbook
for graduate students. Taganrog: Publishing house of SFU, 2015. P. 10–12.
Topic 2. Specificity of scientific knowledge
40
is possible to study the properties of a liquid in General, abstracting from
whether it is sunflower oil, water or mercury.
Abstraction is directly related to idealization – the maximum distraction
from the real properties of the object under study, the process, the phenomenon
of reality and the introduction of features that do not exist in the content of the
concept1. Such concepts as «absolutely solid», «ideal gas», «material point» are
examples of scientific idealization. We will not find them in the world around us,
but we will find there, for example, real gases-oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc.,
which have become the prototypes of the «ideal gas» of physics. «By means of
idealization, a special ideal object is formed and it can be used by scientific
thinking. Idealization helps formulate laws, build abstract schemes of real
processes and, as a result, it is widely used in modeling. There fore, using the
concept of a material point, you can describe and model the behavior of a
satellite.
Modeling (from Latin modulus-measure, sample) is one of the most
important scientific techniques, which is the study of an object, phenomenon, or
process by building and studying their models, i.e., objects that are in relation to
the similarity to the original object, process, or phenomenon. In a broad sense, a
model is any mental or real image, an analog of the subject being studied, used
as its «substitute». The knowledge gained in the course of studying such a
«substitute» is transferred to the original on the basis of analogy and the
principle of similarity. Modeling has acquired the status of a scientific method
since the middle of the XIX century, although models were used to solve certain
problems in the Renaissance (for example, Michelangelo used the model of the
dome of St. Peter's Basilica to test his calculations Peter in Rome). Today,
modeling successfully clarifies the characteristics and rationalizes the ways of
constructing newly constructed objects»2. This is especially important where
research on the original is impossible or involves huge costs. For example, in
aircraft, shipbuilding, and automobile construction, the properties of new
structures are studied on reduced models of developed aircraft, ships, and
automobiles. In fact, any scientific research but not only applied research that
1
Papchenko E. V., Titarenko I. N. Philosophy of Science: General Problems. Textbook
for graduate students. Taganrog: Publishing house of SFU, 2015. P. 10–12.
2
The same source. P. 10–12.
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