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2. Techniques and methods of scientific research
41
works with subject models (as in the above examples) is based on the idea of
modeling. Theoretical research uses various symbolic models and abstract
models (for example, mathematical models).
General scientific techniques include induction (movement from private
knowledge to General knowledge) and deduction (movement from General
knowledge to particular knowledge).
Analogy is widely used in science (from the Greek analogia –
correspondenc). «When reasoning by analogy, the knowledge obtained by
studying a certain object is transferred to a less studied object that is similar in
essential properties. The conclusion by analogy is just as problematic as the
inductive conclusion, and necessarily requires further verification and
justification. However, this does not detract from the significance of analogy in
scientific knowledge, since it is one of the main sources of scientific
hypotheses»1.
Various cognitive techniques form more complex cognitive tools –
methods of scientific research.
Method (from the Greek. methodos – the way of research, theory,
teaching) – a set of techniques, rules, principles, operations of theoretical
development of reality. The method used by science and the scientific theory
itself are inseparable, because they are defined by each other. In addition, the
success of scientific work largely depends on the correctness of the chosen
cognitive tools that make up the methodology. If there is a correct method that
corresponds to the subject of research, even an ordinary scientist can achieve
good results. If the method does not match, a talented person will spend years
overcoming those theoretical difficulties that could have been avoided with the
right approach. Brilliant scientists have always been well aware of this fact. The
Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov (1849–1936), the Creator of the doctrine of
higher nervous activity, the winner of the Nobel prize in 1904, claimed that «the
method holds the fate of research in its hands».
According to the degree of generality, scientific methods are divided
into General scientific methods and Special methods.
1
Papchenko E. V., Titarenko I. N. Philosophy of Science: General Problems. Textbook
for graduate students. Taganrog: Publishing house of SFU, 2015. P. 10–12.
Topic 2. Specificity of scientific knowledge
42
General scientific method sare used in all branches of science. They are
methods of experiment and observation, ascent from the abstract to the concrete,
hypothetical-deductive method, and others. In addition, the methods are divided
into empirical methods (observation, experiment, etc.) and theoretical (logical,
historical, etc.). Depending on the stage of scientific knowledge they are used.
Observation is the initial method of empirical scientific knowledge. It is
based on the sensory abilities of a person – sensation, perception, representation.
These observations are recorded in the description of the research object. The
very word «observation» points the passivity of a person concerning the subject
studied: what is active here – go, look and «absorb». However, the process of
observation is not so simple and not so passive. First, the activity of the
observing subject is manifested in the choice of the object to be observed; in
determining the scope of those phenomena that require attention. You can try to
observe the temperature of a person, while you are monitoring the blood pressure
when studying this disease. In addition, the activity of the cognizing subject
during observation is also manifested in its theoretical conditionality. Theoretical
settings, the entire stock of knowledge of a scientist affects the result of their
observations. The degree of knowledge of the laws of reality can have a strong
influence on the entire result of observations. It is known that an amateur will
never see everything in a stone that a mineralogist will see in it.
The next main method of empirical scientific knowledge is experiment
(from lat. experimentum – experience, test). It is the study of an object under
controlled conditions. This is one of the greatest tools of scientific work.
Humanity started experimenting a long time ago: in Ancient India, a
physiological experiment was used in yoga practice, and in Ancient Greece – a
mathematical experiment was used. «But making the experiment a principle of
the research is the benefit of the Renaissance. The great innovators were the
pioneers in the field of art: Leonardo and others who experimented in music in
the XVI century. They experimented with temperaments of claviers. Thanks to
Galileo the experiment migrated to science and thanks to Bacon it migrated to
theory. Experiment was taken by different sciences to the universities on the
continent. It was in Italy and the Netherlands»1. «Experiments are often used in
science to test hypotheses and predictions. The conditions of the processes are
1
M. Weber.
2. Techniques and methods of scientific research
43
created and controlled by the researchers during the experiment. This makes any
experiment a more active method of cognition than observation. The conditions
of the process and the object under study can be changed by scientists. This gives
the possibility to studyg such properties of the phenomenon that are not observed
in normal, natural conditions.
The experiment is more connected with the theoretical stage of knowledge
than the observation. First, the preparation of the experiment itself requires
appropriate theoretical knowledge or, at least, scientific hypotheses, and its goal
is often to confirm it or not»1. Second, the data obtained during the experiment
require a theoretical interpretation, because the deviation of the ammeter needle
noted in the course of the experiment does not mean anything, but becomes
significant when properly explained and entered into a single theoretical scheme.
It determines the fact that the process of experimentation is complex and multistaged. It includes the planning of the experiment, the choice of technical means
for its implementation, and the interpretation of the experimental study.
Experiments are usually classified according to the tasks and goals they
pursue. There is a research experiment aimed at finding new, unknown
properties, phenomena, and objects. A test experiment designed to confirm or
disprove a hypothesis or scientific prediction is very important. Reproducing and
isolating experiments are widely used in science. According to the branches of
science in which experiments are conducted, the latter can be divided into
physical, biological, medical, chemical, etc. experiments.
«Methods of the theoretical level include the logical method. It is the
process of mental reproduction of a complex developing object in the form of a
specific theory. At the same time, all specific historical features of the object are
cut off, and only the General, essential one is taken into consideration, and the
main direction of development is highlighted. However, only the use of the
logical method in inseparable connection with the historical method requires
studying and reproducing the history of the object under study in all its
diversity»2. It is necessary to take into account the smallest historical features and
accidents that can prevent scientists from theoretical unfounded speculations.
1
Papchenko E. V., Titarenko I. N. Philosophy of Science: General Problems. Textbook
for graduate students. Taganrog: Publishing house of SFU, 2015. P. 10–12.
2
The same source. P. 10–12.
Topic 2. Specificity of scientific knowledge
44
There is no other way. Scientists should understand what is essential and what is
not; where the General line of development is, and where its side branches are
(i.e., successfully apply the logical method). Scientists should know the
development of the object in the smallest detail (i.e. using the historical method).
The principle of unity of logical and historical methods of knowledge requires
the logic of thought to follow the historical process, which avoids speculation
and the creation of all kinds of pseudoscientific constructions.
«Theoretical methods also include the hypothetical-deductive method – a
method of scientific research that consists of putting forward certain statements
as hypotheses and testing these hypotheses by deducing from them (in
conjunction with other available knowledge of empirically verifiable
consequences). Evaluation of the initial hypothesis based on such a conclusion is
complex and multi-level, since only a sufficiently long process of testing a
hypothesis in the context of a system of scientific knowledge can lead to its
reasonable acceptance or refutation. In the modern methodology of science,
when considering the hypothetical-deductive method, they also try to take into
account the processes of improvement and development of hypothetical
constructions of science comparing them with empirical data.
Special (private) methods of scientific knowledge are used only within
the framework of individual Sciences. They are directly based on the laws that
are open to the relevant scientific industry»1. There are many such methods – the
method of spectral analysis in chemistry and physics, the method of qualitative
analysis in chemistry, the method of statistical modeling and others. Their
scientific nature is a prerequisite for the scientific nature while using them.
1
Papchenko E. V., Titarenko I. N. Philosophy of Science: General Problems. Textbook
for graduate students. Taganrog: Publishing house of SFU, 2015. P. 10–12.
2. Techniques and methods of scientific research
45
Schema 2.11
TECHNIQUES OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
TECHNIQUES OF
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Analysis is the division of the object into its component parts,
sides, development trends for the purpose of their separate
study.
Synthesis it is the connection of various objects or previously
selected parts into a single whole, into a system.
Abstraction an important technique of scientific thinking is
abstraction. It is the mental isolation of individual properties,
signs, and relations of the subject that are of interest to the
cognizing the subject. It is simultaneous distraction from other
properties, signs, and relations that are not essential for this
cognitive activity.
Idealization the maximum distraction from the real properties
of the object under study, the process, the phenomenon of
reality and the introduction of features that do not exist in the
content of the concept.
Modeling is one of the most important scientific techniques,
which is the study of an object, phenomenon, or process by
building and studying their models, i.e., objects that are in
relation to the similarity to the original object, process, or
phenomenon.
Topic 2. Specificity of scientific knowledge
46
Schema 2.12
METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
METHODS
OF SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH
Method (from the Greek. methodos – the way
of research, theory, teaching) – a set of
techniques, rules, principles, operations of
theoretical development of reality
According to the degree of generality,
scientific methods are divided into General
scientific methods and Special methods
They are methods of experiment and
observation, ascent from the abstract to the
concrete, hypothetical-deductive method,
and others. In addition, the methods are
divided into empirical methods (observation,
experiment, etc.) and theoretical (logical,
historical, etc.). Depending on the stage of
scientific knowledge they are used.
2. Techniques and methods of scientific research
47
Schema 2.13
METHODOLOGY
METHODOLOGY
Methodology – in various spheres of spiritual and
practical activity, it is a type of rational-reflexive
consciousness.
it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the
methodology was formed and developed in the bosom of
philosophy, which acts as a rational-theoretical form of
worldview.
In the modern complex differentiated methodology, there
is a hierarchy of methodological concepts of different
degrees of development and constructiveness, different
levels and breadth of coverage (methodology at the level
of philosophical reflection, general scientific
methodology, methodology of science at the
interdisciplinary level, methodology of private sciences).
At the same time, methodological concepts related to
individual activities are developed (for example, design
methodology).
Topic 2. Specificity of scientific knowledge
48
Schema 2.14
LEVELS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
LEVELS OF SCIENTIFIC
KNOWLEDGE
EMPIRICAL
THEORETICAL
METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC
KNOWLEDGE
‒ observation
‒ experiment
‒ dimension
‒ classification
‒ systematization
‒ description
UNIVERSAL
‒ analysis and
synthesis
‒ deduction and
induction
‒ analogy
(simulation)
‒ abstraction
‒ idealization
‒ unity of
historical and
logical
‒ climbing from
concrete to
abstract
‒ the ascent from
the abstract to
the concrete
‒ formalization
‒ mathematization
Additional sources
49
CONTROL UNIT
1. Define the problem as a form of scientific knowledge?
2. Which methods can be used to systematize the knowledge gained in
observation and experiment?
3. What is the relationship between empirical and theoretical knowledge?
4. What could let a scientist go to an abstract theoretical level of research?
5. What is meant by formalization in the methodology of science?
MAIN SOURCES
1. Bayborodova, L. V. Methodology and methods of scientific research:
textbook for universities [Text] / L. V. Bayborodova,
A. P. Chernyavskaya. – Moscow: Yurayt Publishing House, 2020. –
221 p.
2. Kokhanovsky, V. P., Leshkevich, T. G., Matyash, T. P., Fathi, T. B.
Foundations of the philosophy of science [Text] / V. P. Kokhanovsky,
T. G. Leshkevich, T. P. Matyash, T. B. Fathi. – Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix,
2007. – 608 p.
3. Lebedev, S. A. Methodology of scientific knowledge: a textbook for
universities [Text] / S. A. Lebedev. – Moscow: Yurayt Publishing House,
2020. – 153 p.
4. Mikeshina, L. A. Philosophy of Science: Contemporary Epistemology.
Scientific knowledge in the dynamics of culture. Scientific research
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MPSI: Flinta, 2005. – 464 p.
5. Mokiy, V. S. Research methodology. Transdisciplinary approaches and
methods: textbook for universities [Text] / V. S. Mokiy,
T. A. Lukyanov. – Moscow: Yurayt Publishing House, 2020. – 170 p.
ADDITIONAL SOURCES
1. Afanasyev, V. V. Methodology and methods of scientific research:
textbook for universities [Text] / V. V. Afanasyev, O. V. Gribkova,
L. I. Ukolov. – Moscow: Yurayt Publishing House, 2020. – 154 p.
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organization [Text] / I. D. Andreev. – Moscow: Nauka, 1979. – 303 p.
Topic 2. Specificity of scientific knowledge
50
3. Bryanik, N. V. Philosophical meaning of the picture of the world of non-
classical science [Text] / N. V. Bryanik // Problems of Philosophy. –
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Moscow: Yurayt Publishing House, 2020. – 365 p.
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Problems. Textbook for graduate students [Text] / E. V. Papchenko,
I. N. Titarenko. – Taganrog: Publishing house of SFU, 2015. – 100 p.
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