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Файл:Mental processes and states in general psychology (for students in the English medium). Study aid
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31
№
Suggestion
Definitely
agree (2)
Slightly
agree (l)
Definitely
disagree (2)
Slightly
disagree (l)
9
I am at my best first thing in the morning.
10
People often tell me that I went too far in
driving my point home in a discussion.
11
It doesn't bother me too much if I am late
meeting a friend.
12
Friendships and relationships are just too
difficult, so I tend not to bother with them.
13
I would never break a law, no matter how
minor.
14
I often find it difficult to judge if something
is rude or polite.
15
In a conversation, I tend to focus on my
own thoughts rather than оn what mу
listener might be thinking.
16
I prefer practical jokes to verbal humor.
17
I live life for today rather than the future.
18
When I was a child, I enjoyed cutting up
worms to see what would happen.
19
I can pick up quickly if someone says one
thing but means another.
20
I tend to have very strong opinions about
morality.
21
It is hard for me to see why some things
upset people so much.
22
I find it easy to put myself in somebody
else's shoes.
23
I think that good manners are the most
important thing a parent can teach their
child.
24
I like to do things on the spur of the
moment.
25
I am good at predicting how someone
will feel.
26
I am quick to spot when someone in
a group is feeling awkward or uncomfortable.
27
If I say something that someone else is
offended by, I think that that's their
problem, not mine.
28
If anyone asked me if I liked their haircut,
I would reply truthfully, even if I didn't
like it.
32
№
Suggestion
Definitely
agree (2)
Slightly
agree (l)
Definitely
disagree (2)
Slightly
disagree (l)
29
I can't always see why someone should
have felt offended by a remark.
30
People often tell me that I am very
unpredictable.
31
I enjoy being the center of attention at any
social gathering.
32
Seeing people cry doesn't really upset me.
33
I enjoy having discussions about politics.
34
I am very blunt, which some people
take to be rudeness, even though this is
unintentional.
35
I don't find social situations confusing.
36
Other people tell me I am good at
understanding how they are feeling and
what they are thinking.
37
When I talk to people, I tend to talk about
their experiences rather than my own.
38
It upsets me to see an animal in pain.
39
I am able to make decisions without being
influenced by people's feelings.
40
I can't relax until I have done everything I
had planned to do that day.
41
I can easily tell if someone else is
interested or bored with what I am saying.
42
I get upset if I see people suffering on news
programs.
43
Friends usually talk to me about their
problems as they say that I am very
understanding.
44
I can sense if I am intruding, even if the
other person doesn't tell me.
45
I often start new hobbies, but quickly
become bored with them and move on to
something else.
46
People sometimes tell me that I have gone
too far with teasing.
47
I would be too nervous to go on a big
rollercoaster.
48
Other people often say that I am
insensitive, though I don't always see why.
49
If I see a stranger in a group, I think that it
is up to them to make an effort to join in.
33
№
Suggestion
Definitely
agree (2)
Slightly
agree (l)
Definitely
disagree (2)
Slightly
disagree (l)
50
I usually stay emotionally detached when
watching a film.
51
I like to be very organized in day-to-day
life and often makes lists of the chores
I have to do.
52
I can tune into how someone else feels
rapidly and intuitively.
53
I don't like to take risks.
54
I can easily work out what another person
might want to talk about.
55
I can tell if someone is masking their true
emotion.
56
Before making a decision, I always weigh
up the pros and cons.
57
I don 't consciously work out the rules of
social situations.
58
I am good at predicting what someone
will do.
59
I tend to get emotionally involved with
a friend's problems.
60
I can usually appreciate the other person's
viewpoint, even if I don't agree with it.
Scoring the EQ
"Definitely agree" responses scored 2 points and "slightly agree" responses
scored I point on the following items: 1, 6, 19, 22, 25, 26, 35, 36, 37, 38, 41, 42, 43,
44, 52, 54, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60.
"Definitely disagree" responses scored 2 points and "slightly disagree"
responses scored 1 point on the following items: 4, 8, 10, 1 1, 12, 14, 15, 18, 21, 27,
28, 29, 32, 34, 39, 46, 48, 49, 50.
Interpretation
For women:
For men:
level of empathy
< 20
< 17
very low level of empathy
20–31
17–28
low level of empathy
32–54
29–51
average level of empathy
55–66
52–63
high level of empathy
> 66
> 63
a very high level of empath
34
GLOSSARY
Emotion: a complex psychological state caused by stimuli, involving
a reaction to a significant or affecting situation, often resulting in observable
expressions like facial gestures or body language.
Feeling: a subjective experience associated with emotion, reflecting a person's
inner state or evaluation of a situation.
Mood: a prolonged emotional state that is general and less specific than an
emotion, often influencing one's overall outlook or disposition.
Affect: abroad category encompassing feelings, moods, and emotions,
particularly emphasizing their intensity and impact on behavior.
Higher Emotions (Feelings): stable emotional relationships developed through
social interactions, characterized by clear motivational values and objectivity, such as
moral, aesthetic, or intellectual feelings.
Situational Emotions: emotions that arise directly from current circumstances
or immediate experiences.
Ideational Emotions: emotions triggered by thoughts or anticipation of future
events rather than actual situations.
STRESS AND STRESS BEHAVIOR STRATEGIES
And at the end of this chapter, let's look at the concept of stress. We know that
stress is a feeling of emotional or physical tension. It can be triggered by any event or
thought that makes you feel frustrated, angry or nervous. Stress is a natural human
reaction that encourages us to cope with challenges and threats in our lives. Everyone
experiences stress to one degree or another. However, how we respond to stress is of
great importance for our overall well-being.
What strategies can relieve stress quickly? A number of useful techniques, such
as deep breathing and meditation, are fast-acting tools that you can use anywhere and
anytime. We also know that people react differently to stressful situations. The types
of their reactions are called coping strategies or coping mechanisms. Lazarus coping
test helps to determine the style of behavior in a difficult situation. This questionnaire
was developed in 1988 by American psychologists Richard Lazarus and Susan
Folkman. This technique is considered the main one for determining response
strategies in difficult situations.
Strategies for stressful behavior
Changing a person's thoughts and actions in difficult situations that exceed
their ability to solve a problem is a way to cope with difficulties.
35
The resolution of a difficult situation occurs with the following actions:
– overcoming difficulties;
– reduction of negative consequences;
– avoiding the problem;
– experiencing difficulties, the ability to endure them.
Overcoming stress occurs with the help of thoughtful strategies. The choice of
behavioral reactions is determined by the character of the person and the situation.
The individual either changes what is happening or adapts to events. This does not
mean that one coping strategy is better or worse than another. The effectiveness of
certain actions in different situations will vary from person to person. However, there
are people who are better able to adapt to difficulties. In addition, adaptability
depends on the society in which the individual is located and on social support.
Lazarus Coping strategies take into account 8 types of stress Reactions:
‒ confrontation;
‒ distancing;
‒ self-control;
‒ applying for social support;
‒ taking responsibility;
‒ avoidance;
‒ problem solving planning;
‒ positive reassessment.
Confrontation helps to act, to move the situation from a dead point,
to express your position and defend it. However, the flip side of such an answer is
the unreasonableness and rashness of actions. Where there is no awareness, it is
difficult to come to an effective solution to the problem.
A difficult task for the psyche can be solved by reducing its importance. The
distancing strategy is a person's attempts to turn off the feeling of a problem, as if to
devalue it. In this case, the person is thinking about the situation, trying to clarify it.
In addition, there is a shift of attention from the problem point to something else, to
playfulness. There is no problem or it is not as significant as it seemed at first.
Distancing helps not to burn out psychologically, to ease the emotional state.
However, suppressing emotions about the significance of what is happening can lead
to a lack of a solution to the problem as such.
This strategy involves suppressing emotions. A person tries to control his
condition, chooses an impartial model of behavior, does not allow feelings and
emotions to inflate. Choosing a self-control strategy, an individual tends to hide his
feelings about difficulties from other people. There is an exaggerated control over
their actions, closeness.
36
Self-control helps to solve the problem as detached as possible, without
unnecessary worries. At the same time, with this approach, needs and desires are
hidden, which negatively affects the satisfaction of solving the problem.
Here, a person's thoughts and actions are directed at society. A person seeks to
receive material, mental and moral support from the outside. Under stress, there is
an attempt to evoke sympathy from others, to speak out, to get recommendations
on what to do.
Getting help from other people helps to solve the problem and at the same time
forms dependence on someone else's assessment and actions of others.
Taking responsibility. The advantage of this strategy is that the individual is
aware of his participation in creating difficulties and understands his role in solving
the problem.
There is an understanding of their actions, the search for personal mistakes,
the identification of their negative qualities. The flip side of this approach is
excessive self-criticism, a sense of hopelessness, dissatisfaction with oneself and
what is happening.
Avoidant people try to avoid solving the problem: they refuse to acknowledge
its existence, make mistakes, misjudge what is happening and get distracted. Using
such a strategy, a person does not seem to notice the complexity, gets annoyed when
it is pointed out to him. Stress compensation is often included due to overeating,
alcohol consumption. Psychologists believe that avoidance is not the most effective
strategy, but when there is a lot of unexpected stress, this position helps to reduce
internal tension.
The main negative side of avoidance is its inefficiency in the long term. At the
moment of stress, a person maintains his condition at the proper level, but the
problem itself remains unresolved.
Planning a solution to the problem. From the name of the strategy, it is clear
that the main behavioral mechanism here is the creation of a plan to get out of the
current situation. A person takes into account his experience, analyzes the possibilities
and probable results of his actions. Scientists consider this type of behavior to be the
most logical, contributing to the real solution of problems. The negative side
of planning is the inability to instantly make the right decision using intuition.
Flexibility and emotionality in choosing the right actions fade into the background.
Positive reassessment. A difficult situation in this case is resolved by a person
through a change in attitude to it. He is characterized by a positive rethinking,
the ability to perceive difficulties as the next stage of self-development.
The disadvantages of the strategy include the possible inability of a person to see
other effective ways out of the current situation.
37
LABORATORY WORK
R. LAZARUS' COPING STRATEGY QUESTIONNAIRE
Purpose. Identify an individual style of behavior in a stressful situation.
Work progress: Please tick next to each of the following statements how often
you do this in difficult situations. To do this, circle a number in the appropriate
column. The test includes 50 positions, each of which is a description of an action
in a difficult situation. One position refers to one of 8 behaviors. The person is asked
to imagine himself in a difficult situation and choose the frequency.
FINDING IN A DIFFICULT SITUATION,
I ...
Never
(0)
Rarely
(1)
Some-times
(2)
Often
(3)
1. Concentrated on what I needed to do.
2. Began to do something, knowing that it will
not happen anyway work: the main thing is to do
at least something.
3. Tried to persuade superiors to ensure that they
have changed your mind.
4. Talked to others to learn more about the
situation.
5. I criticized and reproached myself.
6. Tried not to burn bridges behind him, leaving
everything as it is there is.
7. Hoped for a miracle.
8. Resigned myself to fate: it happens that I have
no luck.
9. Behaved as if nothing had happened.
10. I tried not to show my feelings.
11. Tried to see in the situation and something
positive.
12. Slept more than usual.
13. Tore off my frustration at those who caused
me problems.
14. Seeking sympathy and understanding from
someone.
15. I felt the need to express myself creatively.
16. Tried to forget it all.
17. Asked for help from specialists.
18. Has changed or grew as a person in
a positive way.
19. Apologized or tried to make amends.
38
FINDING IN A DIFFICULT SITUATION,
I ...
Never
(0)
Rarely
(1)
Some-times
(2)
Often
(3)
20. Drew up a plan of action.
21. I tried to give some outlet to my feelings.
22. Realized that I myself caused this problem.
23. Gained experience in this situation.
24. Spoke with anyone who could specifically
help with this situations.
25. Tried to improve my health by eating,
drinking, smoking or medication.
26. Risked recklessly.
27. Tried to act not too hasty, — trusting the
first impulse.
28. Found new faith in something.
29. I was rediscovering something important.
30. Changed something so that everything was
settled.
31. In general, I avoided communicating with
people.
32. I did not allow this to happen to myself,
trying to avoid this especially Think.
33. Asked for advice from a relative or friend
who respected.
34. I tried not to let others know how bad
things were.
35. Refused to take it too seriously.
36. Talked to someone about how I feel.
37. He stood his ground and fought for what he
wanted.
38. I took it out on other people.
39. I used past experience — I already had get
into such situations.
40. Knew what to do and redoubled his efforts to
get things right.
41. Refused to believe that it really happened.
42. I made a promise to myself that next time
everything would be to another.
43. Found a couple of other ways to solve
the problem.
44. I tried not to let my emotions get in my way
too much other things to do.
45. I changed something in myself.
46. I wanted all this to be somehow formed
or ended.
39
FINDING IN A DIFFICULT SITUATION,
I ...
Never
(0)
Rarely
(1)
Some-times
(2)
Often
(3)
47. I imagined, fantasized, how all this could
turn out.
48. Prayed.
49. Replayed in my mind what to say or do.
50. I thought about how a person I admire would
act in this situation and tried to imitate him.
The grouping of test items looks like this:
Confrontation — positions: 2, 3, 13, 21, 26, 37.
Distance — positions: 8, 9, 11, 16, 32, 35.
Self-control — positions: 6, 10, 27, 34, 44, 49, 50.
Search for social support — positions: 4, 14, 17, 24, 33, 36.
Taking responsibility — positions: 5, 19, 22, 42.
Avoidance — Positions: 7, 12, 25, 31, 38, 41, 46, 47.
Problem solving planning — positions: 1, 20, 30, 39, 40, 43.
Positive revaluation — positions: 15, 18, 23, 28, 29, 45, 48.
1. Count the points, summing up for each subscale: never — 0 points;
rarely — 1 point; sometimes — 2 points; often — 3 points.
2. Calculate by the formula: X = sum of points / max score 100.
LIST OF QUESTIONS:
1. What factors influence the choice of a particular coping strategy?
2. Can one strategy be considered more effective than others, or does
everything depend on the specific situation?
3. What are the potential risks and benefits of each strategy?
4. How does the social environment influence the choice of a coping strategy?
5. Are there any universal recommendations for stress management suitable for
most people?
40
PART II. PERSONALITY
TOPIC IV. TEMPERAMENT
The structure of personality includes: temperament, abilities, personality
orientation (needs, inclinations, attitudes, motives), character, and methods of
activity.
Temperament (Latin temperamentum) is a characteristic of an individual
based on the dynamic features of their mental activity. Temperament significantly
determines the uniqueness of mental activity and behavior of people, which is
manifested by a number of formal and dynamic characteristics of cognitive and
emotional processes, features of intellectual activity and speech, action activity, etc.
Thus, temperament determines the energy aspect (intensity) and the temporal aspect
(time, speed) of behavior.
Temperament belongs to constitutionally conditioned substructures of personality
and is determined by the properties of the nervous system. This is the biological basis
upon which a person's character and personality are formed during the process of
socialization. Temperament is innate but not inherited. The main criteria of
temperament are: manifestation already in early childhood, stability of expression in
various situations, and the presence of temperament in both humans and animals.
There are numerous theories explaining the nature of temperament, the primary
ones of which can be grouped into three categories: humoral, constitutional, and
neurodynamic.
The first doctrine of temperament emerged more than two and a half millennia
ago and is attributed to the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (5th century BCE),
from whom the humoral theory originated. He described four types, explaining the
differences between people due to the dominance of a particular fluid in the body.
Each fluid had its own function. Several centuries later, the ancient Roman physician
Claudius Galen (2nd century CE), drawing on Hippocrates' views, developed
the first typology of temperaments, which he outlined in his treatise
"De temperamentum". He identified thirteen types of temperament, including those
that have survived and are still widely used today: sanguine (from Latin sanguis,
meaning "blood"), phlegmatic (from Greek phlegma, meaning "mucus"); choleric
(from Greek cholē, meaning "bile") and melancholic (from Greek melaina cholē,
meaning "black bile", or melancholy).
Constitutional theories consider combinations of humoral and metabolic
characteristics of a person. In 1921, the German psychiatrist Ernst Kretschmer
published his renowned work Körperbau und Charakter ("Body Structure
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