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Файл:Mental processes and states in general psychology (for students in the English medium). Study aid
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4. Projection is attributing an unwanted trait or thought to someone else.
5. Rationalization is coming up with a logical, rational (but false) explanation
for a shameful thought or action.
6. Intellectualization is converting a threatening trait or thought into a cold,
intellectual fact.
7. Displacement is redirecting an unwanted impulse toward something more
acceptable.
8. Regression is reverting to an earlier stage of life development when you are
faced with conflict.
9. Sublimation is converting shameful impulses into something noble;
redirecting the energy to something more acceptable.
Among the concepts of the unconscious, the most fully developed is
the concept of Z. Freud. The most influential followers of Z. Freud are K.G. Jung
and A. Adler.
K.G. Jung called his theory analytical psychology. The main, most fundamental
differences between this theory and psychoanalysis are as follows:
1. The lack of attention to the mechanism of repression. For Jung, the personal
unconscious is not so much a consequence of repression as it is the inclination of
each individual towards a one-sided development of their personality. A person has
a fundamental mode of functioning, which is determined by the dominance of one
of the four primary mental factors: sensation, thinking, feeling, or intuition.
The development of one aspect comes at the expense of the others. No one can fully
function without all four aspects. The use of one aspect becomes habitual and hinders
the development of the others, which become more unconscious.
2. The content of the unconscious is not repression, but insufficiently reflected.
These are not only unpleasant and discarded negative impressions but also
"immature" lofty dreams. This representation of the unconscious is closer to Leibniz's
"small perceptions" than to Freud's.
3. In much that is happening in the mental life of a person, Jung saw the result
of the action of opposites and based his ideas about mental energy on this. Therefore,
the analytical method, which he called synthetic, had to consist in the synthesis
of opposite elements.
4. The unconscious, according to Jung, encompasses two realms: the personal
unconscious and the collective unconscious. The personal unconscious pertains to
the individual's personal life, while the collective unconscious is the shared heritage
of historical culture, passed down through genetic memory. These primordial
memories, or archetypes, cannot become conscious on their own; they manifest in
dreams and dream symbols that require interpretation. In cultural artifacts and myths
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of various cultures, one can find hints of these universal categories. Jung used
the technique of association to connect the personal context of a dream with
archetypal images. By diving into the stream of associations, an individual feels
a part of the archetypal energy. However, this does not imply that the individual loses
their individuality when entering the unconscious. Through reflection and selection,
they establish a responsible and meaningful relationship with their unconscious, and
through this dialogue, they develop their personality. According to Jung, the personal
unconscious is primarily represented by the shadow. "The shadow is what a person
would not want to be".
A special mechanism for determining the content of the repressed
unconscious are the techniques used in psychoanalysis:
1. Hypnosis.
2. Method of free associations.
3. Method of interpreting dreams.
4. Analysis of mistakes and slips.
5. Study of the transference phenomenon.
Hypnosis is the use of relaxation to achieve an altered state of consciousness
in which an individual is more likely to respond to suggestions that alter perceptions
and thoughts.
History of hypnosis
1. Anton Mesmer (1734–1815) was an Austrian physician who developed the
concept of mesmerism, a treatment he believed was based on the concept of animal
magnetism. Mesmer would move magnets over the bodies of individuals suffering
from various ailments. Some of these individuals would enter a state resembling
a trance while he performed this procedure, and upon waking, they would report
feeling better. Mesmerism lacked empirical evidence and was viewed with a certain
degree of skepticism.
2. Clark Hull (1884–1952) was an American psychologist known for his
interest in the concept of suggestibility. He founded a laboratory to study hypnosis
and proved that hypnotic phenomena can be observed in a controlled environment.
In 1933, Hull published the highly regarded book "Hypnosis and Suggestibility:
An Experimental Approach", which was later translated into English as
"Beach, 1959".
Hypnosis and suggestibility
1. A person’s openness to suggestion is critical in determining how susceptible
that person is to hypnosis.
2. An estimated 20 % of people are highly hypnotizable. These people often
have rich fantasy lives and can easily become engrossed in imaginary events.
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3. People led to expect to be hypnotized are more likely to be hypnotized.
What is and is not possible with hypnosis:
1. Some studies indicate that hypnosis can be employed as a therapeutic tool
for a wide range of problems, such as pain management, for individuals who are
particularly receptive to the influence of suggestion. However, the extent to which
hypnosis is effective remains uncertain.
2. Hypnosis cannot make a person act against their will.
3. Hypnosis cannot improve memory, although it may facilitate reflection, and
many memories recovered under hypnosis are not trustworthy. Hypnosis does not
affect the natural processes involved in encoding, storing, and retrieving memories.
LABORATORY WORK
PLUTCHIK-KELLERMAN-CONTE S QUESTIONAIRE — THE LIFE STYLE INDEX (LSI)
Purpose. Find out your leading defense mechanisms
Work progress. Carefully read the statements below that describe the feelings,
behavior and reactions of people in certain life situations, and if they are relevant to
you, then mark the corresponding numbers with a "+" sign.
Statements:
1. It is very easy to get along with me.
2. I sleep more than most people I know.
3. In my life there has always been a person whom I wanted to be like
4. If I am being treated, then I try to find out what is the purpose of each action.
5. If I want something, I can't wait for the moment when my wish will come true.
6. I blush easily.
7. One of my greatest strengths is self-control.
8. Sometimes I have an insistent desire to punch a wall with my fist.
9. I lose my temper easily.
10. If someone pushes me in the crowd, then I am ready to kill him.
11. I rarely remember my dreams.
12. I am annoyed by people who command others.
13. I am often ill at ease.
14. I consider myself an extremely fair person.
15. The more I acquire things, the happier I become.
16. In my dreams, I am always in the center of attention of others.
17. I am upset even by the thought that my household can walk around
the house without clothes.
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18. I am told that I am a braggart.
19. If someone rejects me, then I may have a suicidal thought.
20. Almost everyone admires me.
21. It so happens that I break or hit something in anger.
22. I am very annoyed by people who gossip.
23. I always pay attention to the better side of life.
24. I put in a lot of effort and effort to change my appearance.
25. Sometimes I wish the atomic bomb would destroy the world.
26. I am a person who has no prejudices.
27. I am told that I can be overly impulsive.
28. I am annoyed by people who act in front of others.
29. I really don't like unfriendly people.
30. I always try not to offend anyone by accident.
31. I'm the type who rarely cries.
32. I think I smoke a lot.
33. It is very difficult for me to part with what belongs to me.
34. I don't remember faces well.
35. I ***** sometimes.
36. I have a hard time remembering new surnames.
37. If someone bothers me, then I do not inform him, but complain about
him to another.
38. Even if I know that I am right, I am ready to listen to the opinions
of other people.
39. People never bother me.
40. I can hardly sit still even for a short time.
41. There is little I can remember from my childhood.
42. I do not notice the negative traits of other people for a long time.
43. I believe that you should not be angry in vain, but it is better to calmly
think it over.
44. Others find me overly gullible.
45. People who achieve their goals with scandal make me feel uncomfortable.
46. I try to get the bad out of my head.
47. I never lose my optimism.
48. Leaving to travel, I try to plan everything to the smallest detail.
49. Sometimes I know that I am angry with another beyond measure.
50. When Things Go Wrong I Get Dark.
51. When I argue, it gives me pleasure to point out to another about mistakes
in his reasoning.
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52. I easily accept challenges posed by others.
53. I am thrown off balance by obscene films.
54. I get upset when no one pays attention to me.
55. Others think that I am an indifferent person.
56. Having decided something, I often, nevertheless, doubt the decision.
57. If someone doubts my abilities, then out of a spirit of contradiction
I will show my capabilities.
58. When I'm driving, I often have a desire to crash someone else's car.
59. Many people piss me off with their selfishness.
60. When I leave to rest, I often take some kind of work with me.
61. Some foods make me sick.
62. I bite my nails.
63. Others say that I avoid problems.
64. I like to drink.
65. Obscene jokes confuse me.
66. I sometimes have dreams with unpleasant events and things.
67. I don't like careerists.
68. I tell lies a lot.
69. Adult films disgust me.
70. Trouble in my life is often due to my bad temper.
71. Most of all I do not like hypocritical insincere people.
72. When I am disappointed, I often feel discouraged.
73. The news of tragic events does not make me worry.
74. Touching something sticky and slippery, I feel disgust.
75. When I'm in a good mood, I can act like a child.
76. I think I often argue with people in vain over trifles.
77. The dead do not "touch" me.
78. I don't like those who always try to be the center of attention.
79. Many people annoy me.
80. To wash not in my bathtub is a great torture for me.
81. I can hardly pronounce obscene words.
82. I get annoyed if you can't trust others.
83. I want to be considered sensually attractive.
84. I have the impression that I never finish what I start.
85. I always try to dress well to look more attractive.
86. My moral rules are better than most of my acquaintances.
87. In an argument, I have a better command of logic than my interlocutors.
88. People devoid of morality repulse me.
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89. I get furious if someone hurts me.
90. I often fall in love.
91. Others think that I am too objective.
92. I remain calm when I see a bloody person.
The key to the methodology of Robert Plutchik. Processing the results
of the Plutchik-Kellerman-Conte's Questionnaire.
Eight defense mechanisms of the personality form eight separate scales, the
numerical values of which are derived from the number of positive answers to
certain, above-mentioned statements, divided by the number of statements in each
scale. The intensity of each psychological defense is calculated using the formula
n/N 100 %, where n is the number of positive responses on the scale of this defense,
N is the number of all statements related to this scale. Then the total strength of
all protections (ONZ) is calculated using the formula n/92 100 %, where n is
the sum of all positive responses according to the questionnaire.
The key:
Defense names
Statement numbers
N
Repression
6, 11, 31, 34, 36, 41, 55, 73, 77, 92
10
Regression
2, 5, 9, 13, 27, 32, 35, 40, 50, 54, 62, 64,
68, 70, 72, 75, 84
17
Displacement
8, 10, 19, 21, 25, 37, 49, 58, 76, 89
10
Denial
1, 20, 23, 26, 39, 42, 44, 46, 47, 63, 90
11
Projection
12, 22, 28, 29, 45, 59, 67, 71, 78, 79, 82, 88
12
Compensation
3, 15, 16, 18, 24, 33, 52, 57, 83, 85
10
Reactionformation
17, 53, 61, 65, 66, 69, 74, 80, 81, 86
10
Rationalization
4, 7, 14, 30, 38, 43, 48, 51, 56, 60, 87, 91
12
Process the results and make a conclusion.
1. Denial is refusing to acknowledge something.
2. Repression, also known as dis-associative amnesia, involves unconsciously
forgetting or blocking some unpleasant thoughts, feelings and impulses.
3. Reaction formation is convincing yourself of the opposite of what
is actually true.
4. Projection is attributing an unwanted trait or thought to someone else.
5. Rationalization is coming up with a logical, rational (but false) explanation
for a shameful thought or action.
6. Displacement is redirecting an unwanted impulse toward something more
acceptable.
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7. Regression is reverting to an earlier stage of life development when you are
faced with conflict.
8. Compensation is a development of strength or capability in one area
to offset real or imagined deficiency in another.
LABORATORY WORK
ROSENBERG SELF-ESTEEM SCALE
Purpose. Find out your self-esteem level.
Work progress. Please read each statement and record a number 0, 1, 2 or
3 which indicates how much the statement applied to you over the past two weeks.
There are no right or wrong answers. Do not spend too much time on any one
statement. Use the following system to indicate your preferences: 0 = Strongly disagree;
1 = Disagree; 2 = Agree; 3 = Strongly agree.
Statements:
1. I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others.
2. I feel that I have a number of good qualities.
3. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure (R).
4. I am able to do things as well as most people.
5. I feel I do not have much to be proud of (R).
6. I take a positive attitude toward myself.
7. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.
8. I wish I could have more respect for myself (R).
9. I certainly feel useless at times (R).
10. At times I think that I am no good at all (R).
For items marked with an (R), reverse the scoring (for example, 0 = 3, 1 = 2,
2 =1, 3 = 0). For those items without an (R) next to them, simply add the score.
Typical scores on the Rosenberg scale are around 22, with most people scoring
between 15 and 25. A score of less than 15 suggests low self-esteem may be an issue.
Process the results and make a conclusion.
LIST OF QUESTIONS:
1. Define consciousness and the structure of consciousness.
2. Explain the difference between the human and animal psyche?
3. List the levels of consciousness.
4. What are the main approaches to the study of consciousness?
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5. List the stages of Eric Erickson's epigenetic theory.
6. Compare the topical and structural models of the psyche.
7. What kind of defense mechanisms do you know?
8. What is special about the unconscious in the understanding of K. Jung?
9. What types of defense mechanisms of a psyche do you know? How can you
characterize them?
10. Fill in the table with the stages of development of the psyche of
E. Erickson's theory.
Age
Conflict
Infancy (0–1)
Early childhood (1–3)
Play age (3–6)
School age (6–12)
Adolescence (12–19)
Early adulthood (20–25)
Adulthood (26–64)
Old age (65–death)
11. Mark with a letter the defense mechanism used in each of the situations:
A. Denial B. Displacement C. Intellectualization D. Projection E. Rationalization
F. Reaction formation G. Regression H. Repression I. Sublimation.
1. ____ When the teacher hands you the test you failed, you honestly ex-claim,
"I don’t even remember taking the test!".
2. ____ When the teacher hands you the test you failed, you hand it back and
say, "This can’t be mine. You must have changed the name".
3. ____ You are so upset about failing the test you use your anxious energy to
start cleaning out and organizing your backpack.
4. ____ Although you feel stupid because you failed the test, you compensate
by telling the other students who performed poorly on the test they are stupid.
5. ____ You are so upset about failing the test you break your pencil.
6. ____ You are so upset about failing the test you start to cry.
7. ____ When the teacher hands you the test you failed, you feel like giving up
and never studying again. Instead, you facilitate a study group to prepare for
the next test.
8. ____ You justify your poor test performance by saying you couldn’t
concentrate while you were studying because you were distracted by your younger
sibling. Plus, you also argue the test was too difficult and your teacher didn’t teach
the material well.
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9. ____ Although you are very upset about your poor test performance, you
refuse to acknowledge your negative emotions. Instead, you very calmly, almost
robotically, go over your test to see which questions you missed and ask the teacher
when the next test will be administered.
GLOSSARY
Empathy: the capacity to understand and share the feelings of others,
experiencing joy or sorrow together with them.
Tools: objects created by humans for performing specific tasks, preserved and
utilized outside of a particular situation, distinguishing humans from animals.
Evolution: the process of change and adaptation in species, including
the development of animal psyches according to biological laws.
Social Experience: the accumulated knowledge, norms, and values transmitted
by society, forming an individual's personality.
Consciousness: awareness of both internal and external stimuli, encompassing
self-awareness and understanding of the surrounding world.
Sleep: a state of reduced physical activity and sensory awareness, where
consciousness disconnects from the external world.
Preconscious State: a condition in which mental events exist outside
of immediate awareness but can be recalled deliberately.
Nonconscious Processing: automatic processing of information occurring
outside conscious control, such as regulating physiological processes.
Unconsciousness: lack of awareness caused by medical procedures (anesthesia)
or psychological factors.
Hypnosis: a self-focused state where attention is directed inward, ignoring
external stimuli.
Meditation: a practice involving concentration on a single object to enhance
awareness and achieve inner peace.
Introspection: a method of observing and analyzing one's own thoughts and
emotions to examine the workings of consciousness.
Trust Level: the level of confidence a child has in the reliability of caregivers,
based on the quality of care and love received in early childhood.
TOPIC VIII. CONFLICT
A conflict is a collision of incompatible, oppositely directed tendencies in
a person's mind, in interpersonal or intergroup relations, causing acute negative
experiences. It is a struggle and a clash of different interest, opinion, or even
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principles. The word conflict has been derived from a Latin word 'Conflicts' which
means 'strike two things at the same time'. Conflict is initiated the instant clash
occurs. Generally, there are diverse interests and contrary views behind a conflict,
which are revealed when people look at a problem from their viewpoint alone.
Conflict is an outcome of organizational intricacies, interactions and disagreements.
It can be settled by identifying and neutralizing the etiological factors. Once conflict
is concluded it can provoke a positive change in the organization. When we recognize
the potential for conflict, we implicitly indicate that there is already a conflict of
direction, even though it may not have yet manifested itself as a clash. Confliction is
the process of setting up, promoting, encouraging or designing conflict. It is awilful
process and refers to the real effort put into generating and instituting conflict.
Deconfliction is the annihilation of conflict. It does not refer to negotiation or
bargaining, or even to resolution of conflict: it is the effort required to eliminate
the conflict.
There are different types of conflicts:
intrapersonal or goal conflicts;
interpersonal conflicts;
conflicts between individual and group;
conflicts between social groups.
The internal (intrapersonal) conflict concerns the subject himself,
the external one is conditioned by interpersonal relations (although both types of
conflict are interdependent).
The intrapersonal conflicts are the conflicts caused within the individual. These
conflicts arise as a result of two or more motives or goals to be achieved at a time.
K.Lewin has described three types of goal conflicts.
Speaking about the fact that the internal conflict is due to the opposite
tendencies of the subject, the following options are usually analyzed:
– the conflict "attraction-attraction", the so-called "conflict of Buridan's
donkey". In this type of conflict individual will have two desires with positive
valence which are equally powerful. For example, a person has two attractive job
offers and he has to choose any one of them– tension arises. Such conflicts are not
so harmful (fig. 5);
Fig. 5. The conflict "attraction-attraction"
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