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Файл:Mental processes and states in general psychology (for students in the English medium). Study aid
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consciousness, and self-analysis of his own mental states. The development of
conceptual and reflective consciousness does not occur at once; thinking about how
I know the world around me, thinking about what is happening in my own mind, is
formed much later than conceptual consciousness, since all mental life, except for
the sphere of the psyche that is not controlled by consciousness — the unconscious —
can be subjected to introspection.
There are some differences between the human psyche and the animal psyche
(A.V. Petrovsky).
1. Human thinking is characterized by the ability to abstract from the particular
situation and anticipate the consequences. Animal thinking is always practical.
2. The second difference between man and animal lies in his ability to create
and preserve tools. Outside of a specific situation, the animal never singles out a tool
as a tool, does not save it for use.
3. More developed emotional sphere of a person. Only a human is able to
empathize in grief and rejoice to another person.
4. The most important difference between the animal psyche and the human
psyche lies in the conditions of their development. The development of the animal
psyche proceeded according to the laws of biological evolution. The development of
human psyche, of human consciousness, is subject to the laws of historical
development. But only a person is able to appropriate the social experience that
develops his psyche to the greatest extent.
Consciousness is an awareness of both internal and external stimuli.
Levels of consciousness (states and altered states of consciousness):
1. Wakefulness is a state of consciousness characterized by high levels of
awareness, behavior, and thought.
2. Sleep is a state of consciousness characterized by lower levels of physical
activity and sensory awareness.
3. A preconscious state is when mental events are outside of current conscious
awareness but can be brought into consciousness voluntarily (i.e., remembering).
4. A nonconscious state is when mental processing occurs outside conscious
awareness (e.g., controlling heart rate, respiration, and temperature).
5. Unconsciousness is a state characterized by a lack of awareness, such as that
induced by anesthesia during medical procedures. Freud posited that the unconscious
acts as a repository for repressed sexual and aggressive impulses. Jung, on the other
hand, saw the unconscious as a gateway to the collective unconscious, a storehouse of
ancestral thought patterns or archetypes.
6. Altered states of consciousness.
a. Hypnosis is the state of self-focus in which little attention is given
to external stimuli.
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b. Meditation is focusing on a single target (e.g., breathing) to increase
awareness, achieve a sense of peace and tranquility and/or being "in the moment"
(see Lesson 4).
c. Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that act upon the central nervous
system and are associated with changes in perception, mood, and behavior.
There are several main approaches to the study of the problem
of consciousness:
1. Neurophysiological aspects, from the perspective of examining wakefulness
levels, each of which exhibits its unique EEG pattern of brain activity, state of
attention, and cognitive processes.
2. From the perspective of introspection and contemplation, observing and
reflecting on one's own mental processes.
3. From the position of conscious (spontaneous) regulation and selforganization of mental activity and behavior.
Meditation and relaxation techniques:
A. Meditation encompasses a variety of practices originating from Asian and
Buddhist traditions, aimed at attaining a different state of awareness characterized by
feelings of calmness and serenity. This altered state can be achieved by concentrating
on a single point of focus, which could be a word, an object, or a bodily sensation.
B. Relaxation is the act of attempting to relax either through specific exercises
or through some sort of imagery.
C. Physiological effects of these techniques include lowered respiration rate,
heart rate, blood pressure, and muscle tension.
D. Mindful meditation has the potential to treat issues ranging from insomnia
to mood/anxiety disorders to chronic pain to recovery from drug addiction and abuse.
E. Although many of the benefits of meditation can also be achieved through
relaxation techniques, meditation may offer an additional advantage in reducing
rumination — the tendency to dwell on stressful thoughts — which can be
particularly beneficial for individuals struggling with anxiety or mood-related
concerns.
Eric Erikson's epigenetic theory of personality development
The epigenetic theory of personality development shows how throughout life,
starting from infancy, a person experiences age-related crises, and how his further
development occurs, which is largely determined by how the tasks of each crisis
period were experienced and resolved.
Eric Homburger Erikson is an American psychoanalyst who devoted many
of his works to the study of personality and its analysis; he is one of the founders
of "Ego Psychology". Erik Erikson was a follower of Sigmund Freud, and
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his daughter, Anna Freud, had a significant influence on his development as
a psychoanalyst, who achieved great success in this field.
When researching personality and writing his works, Erikson turned to
analyzing the characteristics of such famous people as Martin Luther, Bernard Shaw,
Thomas Jefferson, Maxim Gorky, and Mahatma Gandhi.
One of his most significant works can rightfully be considered the theory of the
relationship between the Self and society. The psychoanalyst outlined the concept of
periodization of personality development in his book Childhood and Society. The
considered theory of Erikson has several names. It is called epigenetic because it
explains how personality development occurs in epigenesis. The phenomenon of
epigenesis is a development that occurs due to the appearance of neoplasms and the
differentiation of parts of the whole.
Also, this theory is called the theory of psychosocial development, due to
the fact that it reflects the importance of the social environment and interaction at
each stage of personality development.
Erikson believed that personality formation is nothing more than the result of
biological maturation; however, he focuses on the importance that society has on this
process.
Erikson's epigenetic theory involves studying not only the object of research
but also the society and culture in which it resides. A striking study within
the framework of Erikson's concept can be called his experiment, during which
a psychoanalyst analyzed the differences between children, one of whom was raised
in an Indian community (tribal), and the other in a city in the United States
of America.
It was also decided to investigate the family of each of the children, so it
became obvious that each child is significantly influenced by his mother. Having
certain characteristic features and peculiarities, she projects them onto her child,
which is reflected in the form of various consequences, including the imprint on the
development process itself. For every mother, her parenting model is the only true
one, and this model, through interaction, is transformed into a certain family
atmosphere within which the family lives.
Based on his theory, the psychoanalyst identified eight stages of development.
Erikson believed that personality formation is nothing more than the result of
biological maturation; however, he focuses on the importance that society has on this
process.
Erik Erikson believed that social connections play a key role in personality
development. The psychoanalyst believed that each stage of personality development
is characterized by a certain pattern of behavior, and throughout life, a person adheres
to these patterns to one degree or another.
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At each stage of human development, he is usually surrounded by different
people, and the quality of interaction with them determines the success of the
transition to the next stage of life. Such transitions are carried out through living and
passing through a certain crisis.
Naturally, overcoming each crisis period, a person usually has two options for
the development of events — positive and negative. Having successfully survived
a crisis, a person reaps the benefits in the form of positive consequences, he gets new
skills and feels more confident, moving further along the path of his development.
However, if a person unsuccessfully overcomes a particular crisis period, he gets
negative consequences and has additional difficulties, so his further development is
hampered.
Each society, regardless of location and nationality, forms a special model of
individual behavior for everyone, which subsequently becomes familiar to him. For
example, in modern realities, the following sequence is common: birth, socialization,
education, work, starting a family, and so on. In other countries, a similar model may
either be missing or contain one or more items, depending on the conditions and
characteristics of life activity. If an individual for some reason deviates from
the course "prescribed" by society, then sometimes adverse consequences may occur.
In this regard, a person, on the path of his development, may lose support from the
environment, because he did not meet the usual expectations for society. In such
manifestations, Erik Erikson traces the ego identity and group identity of a person.
Stage 1. Trust vs. Mistrust
The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs
between birth and 1 year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because
an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is based on the dependability and
quality of the child's caregivers.
At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult
caregivers for everything they need to survive, including food, love, warmth, safety,
and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child will
come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon the adults in their life.
If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the
world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting
contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children under their care. Failure to develop
trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.
During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of
trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead
to mistrust.
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No child is going to develop a sense of 100 % trust or 100 % doubt. Erikson
believed that successful development was all about striking a balance between
the two opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson
described as an openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger may
be present.
Stage 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place
during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of
personal control.
At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little
independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and making
simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain
control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of autonomy.
The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of
personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays
an important role in helping children develop this sense of autonomy.
Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process.
However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson
believed that learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control
and a sense of independence. Other important events include gaining more control
over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.
Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left
without a sense of personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial
development leads to feelings of autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and
doubt. Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while
those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed
that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will,
which is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits.
Stage 3. Initiative vs. Guilt
The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool
years. At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power
and control over the world through directing play and other social interactions.
Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others.
Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and
lack of initiative.
The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that
children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in
this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power
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experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. When an ideal balance of
individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego quality
known as purpose emerges.
Stage 4. Industry vs. Inferiority
The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from
approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop
a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to
a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop
a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no
encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be
successful.
Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads
to the strength known as competence, in which children develop a belief in their
abilities to handle the tasks set before them.
Stage 5. Identity vs. Confusion
The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage
years. This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity
which will continue to influence behavior and development for the rest of a person's
life. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to
an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak
sense of self.
During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense
of self. Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal
exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings
of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires
will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs,
ideals, and values that help shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing this
stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by
society's standards and expectations.
While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was
important, he placed a particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego
identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction and
becomes a central focus during the identity versus confusion stage of psychosocial
development.
According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new
experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others.
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As we have new experiences, we also take on challenges that can help or hinder
the development of identity.
Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self
that endures through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our
experiences and interactions with others, and it is this identity that helps guide our
actions, beliefs, and behaviors as we age.
Stage 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people.
Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.
This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal
relationships.
Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed
relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step will form
relationships that are enduring and secure.
Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson
believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important for developing
intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self
tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to struggle with
emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love.
It is marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.
Stage 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having
children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to
feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow
involvement in the world.
During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and
family. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing
to the world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain
this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being
proud of your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and
developing a sense of unity with your life partner are important accomplishments
of this stage.
Stage 8. Integrity vs. Despair
The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting
back on life. At this point in development, people look back on the events of their
lives and determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret
the things they did or didn’t do.
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Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed development
throughout the entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back on
life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom,
while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock.
Those who look back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to
face the end of their lives with a sense of peace. Those who look back and only feel
regret will instead feel fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the
things they feel they should have.
Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been
wasted and may experience many regrets. The person will be left with feelings of
bitterness and despair.
Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and
a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when
confronting death.
TOPIC VII. UNCONSCIOUS
The unconscious is an area of the psyche that is not controlled by
consciousness. Usually, the concept of the unconscious is interpreted as:
1. Mental activity that processes information without reflecting this process in
the mind, while the image of reality and the subject's relationship to it act as a single
undivided whole.
2. Experiences that are not realized by the subject, that do not have verbal
objectification.
The first ideas about the unconscious go back to Plato, who metaphorically
presented the unconscious in the image of two rushing horses — black and white —
which are ruled by a charioteer — consciousness. For the first time, he expressed
the idea of a conflict between parts of the personality and the controlling function of
consciousness.
As a scientific concept, the problem of the unconscious was first put forward in
1720 by the German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz, who denied the identity of the
psyche and consciousness. Leibniz introduced the concept of the unconscious psyche,
believing that outside the act of consciousness of the subject, the work of mental
forces hidden from him is continuously going on.
In the early stages of the development of psychology, the unconscious was
understood as a kind of periphery of consciousness, losing the quality of the mental
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as it moves away from the zone of clear vision (consciousness) (B. Wundt). Later,
the ideas of the unconscious were developed in the clinical concepts of
psychopathologists who studied the clinic of hysteria, hypnotic states, and psychoses.
P. Janet saw in the unconscious the effect of disaggregation (stratification) of
consciousness with the release of deep drives and "mental automatisms".
The greatest contribution to the doctrine of the unconscious was made by
the work of Sigmund Freud. He presented the unconscious as a dynamic process,
the central mechanism of which is an intrapsychic conflict. Freud identified two types
of the unconscious:
– latent unconscious (unconscious at the moment, but under special
conditions, for example, refocusing attention, capable of becoming conscious);
– repressed unconscious, not capable of becoming conscious under normal
conditions as a result of resistance.
According to Freud, the human psyche is a kind of energy system in which the
circulation of mental energy can be disturbed due to "blockages". Then, in the mental
system, there is an accumulation (accumulation) of energy, which can lead to
an "explosion", a violation of the mental balance. Freud's psychodynamic theory
postulates an initial mental conflict determined by the dual nature of man (biological
and social).
In the topical concept of the psyche, Z. Freud singled out three subsystems:
Unconscious — Preconscious — Consciousness. The most powerful of them is
the Unconscious (the germ of the entire psyche) — the unknown, the unknowable.
Consciousness is the visible part of the psyche. Preconsciousness is that which can
become conscious by association with the corresponding verbal representations.
The unconscious cannot become conscious on its own. It can become a subject of
discussion only through special analytical activity. The existence of the unconscious
can only be assumed by some consequences. The elevated does not let the
mechanism of psychic censorship into the sphere of consciousness, which protects
Consciousness from destructive knowledge. However, the energy of the Unconscious
is so great that it can break through the blockade if it is not channeled (diverted to
another channel). This work (channeling of libido energy) is performed by a defense
mechanism — cathexis.
In 1923, Freud modified the structure of the psyche. His structural concept
distinguishes three systems: "Id" — "Ego" — "Super-Ego". Here, not only "Id" is
unconscious, but also "Ego" and "Super-Ego" have unconscious mechanisms.
"Id" is a reservoir of psychic energy and a source of development of other
systems. "Id" is an innate mental apparatus, an unconscious, instinctive, animal
psyche, which in its functioning obeys the principle of pleasure ("I want").
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The "Ego" is the part of the psyche that develops from the "Id" through
encounters with the real world. At the level of "Ego", there are unconscious
mechanisms, primarily defense mechanisms. "Ego" obeys the principle of reality
("I can"), develops on the basis of cognitive learning, and functions at the level of the
cognitive psyche. "Perception plays the same role for the "Ego" that instinct plays
in the "Id".
"Super-Ego" is a derivative, a layering of the "Ego", which emerged
by incorporating moral prohibitions and requirements imposed on a developing
personality by society, by appropriating the "Ego" of collective social experience.
The "Super-Ego" is not entirely "conscious", since in its formation it relies not on
the real experience of the individual, but on a system of social prohibitions,
assimilated by the child with the help of parents or figures replacing them (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. The relation of topographic and structural models of the psyche (Z. Freud)
Z. Freud believed that part of the reason so much of personality resides in
the unconscious is because many motives, thoughts, and feelings are threatening for
us to admit to ourselves. Thus, we develop means to keep those aspects outside of our
consciousness by developing self-protective strategies. These strategies are called
defense mechanisms and include the following:
1. Denial is refusing to acknowledge something.
2. Repression is pushing something out of your mind so you do not think about
it. You don’t actively deny it; rather, you just decide not to think about it and
eventually forget it.
3. Reaction formation is convincing yourself of the opposite of what is
actually true.
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