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Файл:Mental processes and states in general psychology (for students in the English medium). Study aid
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and Character"). By analyzing morphological signs, Kretschmer identified three main
body types, each corresponding to certain traits of temperament and predispositions
to specific types of mental disorders.
1. Asthenic body type (leptosomic):
Characterized by an asthenic physique, tall stature, long slender limbs and
neck, flat chest, and narrow shoulders. The asthenic type of constitution corresponds
to a schizothymic temperament, which is marked by isolation, hypersensitivity,
vulnerability, difficulties in interpersonal contact, and a tendency toward abstract
thinking.
2. Picnic type:
Overweight, excess weight, short or average height, large abdomen, short neck.
The picnic type corresponds to a cyclothymic temperament, characterized by
openness, gentleness, kindness, responsiveness, as well as mood fluctuations ranging
from manic to depressive.
3. Athletic type:
Strong build, broad shoulders, well-developed muscles, tall or medium height.
Athletes are characterized by an ixothymic temperament: reserved, persistent,
unemotional, and rigid.
Ernst Kretschmer's theory was highly influential in Europe. In the United
States, during the 1940s, the morphological theory of the American psychologist
William Sheldon gained prominence.
W. Sheldon identifies three constitutional types: endomorphic, mesomorphic,
and ectomorphic, which correspond to the following components of temperament:
viscerotonia (Latin viscera — "internal organs"), somatotonia (Greek soma —
"body"), and cerebrotonia (Latin cerebrum — "brain"). Viscerotonics (endomorphs,
digestive type) are characterized by friendliness, sociability, amiability, tolerance,
and a love of comfort and pleasure. They correspond to the picnic type in
E. Kretschmer's framework. Somatotonics (mesomorphs, muscular type) possess
strong, muscular builds, broad shoulders and chests, and large heads. They are prone
to physical activity, energetic, and known for their courage, confidence, and
willingness to take risks. According to Kretschmer, somatotony is analogous to
athleticism. Cerebrotonics (ectomorphs, cerebral type) correspond to an asthenic
physique. These individuals are introverted, prefer solitude, and exhibit tendencies
toward reasoning, reflection, sensitivity, and inhibition.
In contemporary psychology, the constitutional approach has faced criticism
for correlating personal characteristics with factors lacking the necessary properties
for such associations.
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The foundation for the development of the neurodynamic (physiological)
theory of temperament was established by the teachings of I.P. Pavlov. He identified
three principal properties of the nervous system: strength, mobility, and balance,
introducing the concept of the type of higher nervous activity. The properties of the
nervous system represent innate, typological, and stable features of the nervous
system, evident in the distinctive qualities of the processes of excitation and
inhibition. Strength, as defined by Pavlov, denotes the endurance of the nervous
system and its capacity to withstand exceptionally strong stimuli. Individuals with
a strong nervous system demonstrate high efficiency, low fatigue, and the capability
to manage multiple tasks concurrently. Under high-stress conditions, their activity
becomes even more productive. Conversely, individuals with a weak nervous system
experience rapid fatigue, require frequent rest intervals, show diminished
effectiveness under conditions of psycho-emotional stress, and struggle to divide their
attention among multiple tasks simultaneously. Nevertheless, in familiar, repetitive
activities conducted in a tranquil setting, their performance improves.
Nervous system mobility entails the ability to react swiftly to environmental
changes and encompasses the speed of mental processes, along with the ease of
shifting between nervous processes of the same or opposing natures. Mobility's
foundation lies in the presence and persistence of trace processes. Observable
manifestations of nervous system mobility include swift engagement in work,
elevated workability, variability in techniques and methodologies for executing
specific tasks, and ease in transitioning from one execution method to another, which
manifests in motor, intellectual, and social domains alike. Nervous system balance
pertains to the equilibrium between excitatory and inhibitory processes.
I. Pavlov posited that the combination of nervous system properties determines
the types of higher nervous activity, aligning with the four classical temperamental
types:
– sanguine: strong, balanced, mobile;
– choleric: strong, unbalanced, mobile;
– phlegmatic: strong, balanced, inert;
– melancholic: weak, unbalanced, inert.
A significant contribution to the study of the neurophysiological properties of
temperament was made by the school of Russian differential psychophysiology
(B.M. Teplov, V.D. Nebylitsyn, V.S. Merlin, V.M. Rusalov).
V.D. Nebylitsyn identified three primary components in the structure of
temperament: general activity, motor skills, and emotionality.
General Activity represents the energy potential of a personality, primarily
consisting of the individual's tendency toward self-expression, effective development,
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and transformation of external reality. The level of activity ranges from passivity to
energy and impetuosity.
The second component, Motor Skills, is manifested through the speed, rhythm,
strength, and sharpness of motor and speech activity.
The Emotional Component comprises a wide array of properties and qualities
that define the emergence, progression, and cessation of various affects, feelings, and
moods, thereby characterizing the ease and intensity of emotional reactions. Key
characteristics of emotionality include impressionability, impulsivity, and emotional
lability. Impressionability expresses sensitivity to emotional influences, whereas
Impulsivity refers to the rapidity with which emotions drive actions without prior
deliberation. Finally, Emotional Lability describes the rate at which one emotional
state ends and another begins.
A sanguine individual exhibits high neuropsychic activity, animated facial
expressions, and expressive movements. Their emotional experiences, though lively,
are typically shallow, and their mobility often leads to hasty, sometimes superficial
behavior. Sanguines are energetic, efficient, disciplined, and possess flexible minds.
They readily engage in new tasks, adapting effortlessly to novel requirements and
conditions. Sociable, active, and cheerful, sanguines form connections with others
easily. Their high plasticity is evident in the variability of their feelings, moods, and
interests.
Individuals with a choleric temperament display high levels of neuropsychic
activity, energy, and impetuous movement. Their emotional reactions are intense and
vividly expressed. Imbalance in cholerics may manifest as short tempers, intolerance,
impatience, and reduced self-control in emotionally charged situations. Less plastic
than sanguines, cholerics exhibit greater stability in their aspirations and interests,
demonstrating perseverance.
Those with a phlegmatic temperament are characterized by high activity,
slowness, calmness, and steadiness in their feelings and moods. While they exhibit
low emotionality, they are resistant to change and may appear passive or lethargic in
adverse conditions. Nonetheless, phlegmatics are noted for their self-control,
patience, and efficiency. Their movements are deliberate, their facial expressions and
speech are expressionless, and they rarely display overt emotions, tending instead to
avoid conflict while accumulating negative emotions internally.
Finally, the melancholic temperament is marked by a low level of neuropsychic
activity, impressionability, timidity, and reserve. Even minor issues can distress
melancholics, especially in stressful situations, where they may experience heightened
vulnerability, isolation, anxiety, and self-doubt. Their defining trait is exceptional
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sensitivity, which, combined with the depth and constancy of their emotional
experiences, enables them to excel as musicians, artists, and thinkers (fig. 3.)
Fig. 3. Four Temperament
LIST OF QUESTIONS:
1. What are the three primary components of temperament identified by
V.D. Nebylitsyn?
2. How does the level of general activity range in terms of personality?
3. Describe the characteristics of a sanguine individual.
4. Compare and contrast the characteristics of a choleric temperament with
those of a sanguine temperament.
5. What distinguishes a phlegmatic temperament from other temperaments in
terms of emotional expression and adaptation to change?
6. Explain the main qualities of a melancholic temperament and how they
contribute to artistic or intellectual pursuits.
7. Why might the constitutional approach to studying temperament be subject
to criticism in modern psychology?
8. How did I.P. Pavlov's teachings lay the groundwork for the neurodynamic
theory of temperament?
TOPIC V. CHARACTER
In psychology, alongside the concept of "temperament", the notion of
"character" (derived from the Greek word charaktēr, meaning "trait, feature, stamp,
or mint") is widely utilized. Character refers to stable individual personality traits that
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emerge and manifest in activities and interactions, thereby shaping a person's typical
modes of behavior. Among numerous character traits, some are dominant, while
others are secondary. These traits can either harmonize (indicating a coherent
character) or contrast with the dominant traits (signaling a contradictory character).
Understanding a person's character enables predictions and corrections of anticipated
actions with considerable accuracy.
Character is neither inherited nor a fixed, immutable attribute. Instead, it
develops throughout a person's life under the influence of their environment, life
experiences, and upbringing. Social conditions and specific life circumstances
significantly impact character formation.
In 1964, the prominent German psychiatrist, neurologist, and psychologist Karl
Leonhard coined the term "accentuated personalities". Character accentuations (from
Latin accentus, meaning "emphasis") represent extreme variations of normal
character, wherein particular traits are overly amplified. This enhancement renders
individuals selectively vulnerable to certain psychogenic influences while conferring
resistance to others.
Character accentuations are not classified as mental disorders; rather, they signify
a certain disharmony in personality development, characterized by intensification of
specific traits. This sharpening complicates adaptation to psychogenic situations.
Hereditary factors, social influences, and, notably, family upbringing play pivotal
roles in the development of character accentuations.
Character accentuations frequently surface during adolescence and puberty.
In adulthood, these emphasised traits often soften. Provided favorable conditions
prevail, social maladjustment remains minimal or transient. Based on severity,
accentuations are categorized as either explicit or latent. Explicit accentuations
persistently manifest, whereas latent ones are faintly expressed or apparent only
under specific conditions. Several classifications exist for character accentuations.
The initial classification belongs to Karl Leonhard (Leonhard, 1964, 1968), and the
system devised by the Soviet psychologist Andrei Yevgenyevich Lichko (Lichko,
1977) is also widely recognized.
Karl Leonhard's classification outlines ten primary types of accentuations.
These groups of accentuated personalities are unified by the principle of character
or temperament emphasis. Character accentuations include obsessiveness, pedantry,
demonstrativeness, and excitability. Temperament accentuations encompass
hyperthymic, emotional, anxious, cycloid, dysthymic, and exalted types. Classification
of Character Accentuations (According to K. Leonhard):
Demonstrative Type. The core trait of a demonstrative personality is
an augmented need to occupy the center of attention, coupled with egocentricity,
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a craving for admiration, and a propensity for theatricality in gestures and actions
designed to captivate. Such individuals often embellish details about themselves,
exhibiting vanity and boastfulness. They relentlessly pursue their objectives,
employing tactics such as provoking conflicts, shedding tears, deceiving, feigning
illness, or even fainting.
Hyperthymic Type. Hyperthymic individuals are characterized by high spirits,
optimism, a zealous pursuit of activity, and sociability. They establish interpersonal
connections effortlessly, adeptly navigate challenges, and remain fixated on success,
seldom dwelling on failures. While admirable, their frivolity, indiscipline, flippant
attitude toward work, irascibility, and proclivity for immoral conduct constitute
notable drawbacks.
Pedantic Type. Externally, pedantic individuals exhibit meticulousness,
a yearning for order, hesitancy, and cautiousness. Prior to acting, they ponder
extensively and deliberately. Beneath their outward precision lies reluctance to
embrace swift alterations and aversion to assuming responsibility. They cherish
routine tasks and demonstrate conscientiousness in daily life.
Obsessive Type. Obsessive personalities are hallmarked by unwavering affect
stability, extended emotional responses, and profound experiences. Offenses to personal
interests or dignity linger indefinitely, rarely forgiven outright. Consequently, others
perceive them as touchy, vengeful, and grudge-holding individuals. Prolonged
experiences often entwine with ruminations and plotting retaliation against offenders.
Excitable Type. Excitable personalities showcase pronounced impulsivity in
behavior. Their mode of communication and conduct stem predominantly from
impulses, attractions, instincts, or unrestrained urges rather than rational comprehension.
Socially, they exhibit extremely low tolerance, often sparking friction.
Dysthymic Type. Dysthymic individuals embody the antithesis of
hyperthymic personalities. Inhibited, passive, defeatist, and pessimistic, they maintain
a gloomy demeanor. Typically secluded, they eschew raucous gatherings,
maintaining aloofness and brevity in interactions. Despite their negativity, they
exemplify seriousness, conscientiousness, and fairness.
Cyclothymic (Affective-Labile) Type. Cyclothymic individuals oscillate
periodically between hyperthymic and dysthymic states, vacillating between peaks of
enthusiasm and valleys of despondency.
Affective-Exalted Type (Exalted Type). Exalted personalities are defined by
their vehement (exalted) reactions to occurrences. They exuberantly rejoice in joyful
events and plummet into despair over sorrowful ones. Extremely impressionable,
their inner sensibilities find vibrant external expression in their behavior.
Anxious Type. Anxious individuals are plagued by excessive concerns
regarding potential failures, fretting over their destiny and that of their loved ones,
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despite the absence of substantive grounds for worry. Timorous and occasionally
subservient, they perpetually monitor circumstances while harboring self-doubt.
Emotional Type. Emotional personalities are distinguished by acute sensitivity.
Attributes such as tender-heartedness, kindness, sincerity, emotional responsiveness,
heightened empathy, and susceptibility to tears are commonplace.
LIST OF QUESTIONS:
1. Define the concept of "character" in psychology.
2. How does character differ from temperament?
3. Explain the concept of "character accentuations" and give examples of types
identified by K. Leonhard.
4. What role do social conditions and upbringing play in the development of
character?
5. Distinguish between explicit and latent character accentuations.
6. How does the concept of "accentuated personalities" relate to mental health
diagnoses?
7. Critically evaluate the classification systems proposed by K. Leonhard
and A.E. Lichko.
8. Reflect on the implications of character for personal and professional
development.
ABILITIES
Abilities are personal qualities that serve as prerequisites for successfully
engaging in a particular type of activity. They evolve from innate, stable
psychophysiological characteristics (aptitudes) through participation in relevant
activities. Natural aptitudes provide a versatile foundation, enabling the development
of diverse abilities.
Abilities are malleable and subject to reconfiguration, offering compensatory
possibilities for mental regulation. Weaknesses in certain neurophysiological
components can be offset by strengths in others. A person’s aptitude for specific
activities may foster inclinations toward those endeavors. Conversely, some individuals
may exhibit traits unfavorable for certain activities, leading to inefficiencies.
The development and cultivation of abilities remain a critical issue in psychological
research.
Traditionally, abilities are classified into two categories:
1. General Abilities
Essential for all activities:
– elementary: ability to cognitively reflect reality, basic perceptual, mnemonic,
imaginative, and volitional faculties;
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– complex: learning capabilities, observational acumen, and general intellectual
advancement.
2. Special Abilities
Specific to distinct types of activities:
– graphic, artistic, and literary;
– scientifically oriented (e.g., mathematical);
– practical-organizational;
– creative-practical.
By recognizing and nurturing these capacities, individuals can optimize their
performance across varied domains.
LIST OF QUESTIONS:
1. Define the concept of "abilities" in psychology.
2. Differentiate between "general abilities" and "special abilities".
3. Explain how abilities develop from innate aptitudes.
4. Compare and contrast the traditional classification of abilities with modern
approaches.
LABORATORY WORK
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR IDENTIFYING THE STRUCTURE OF SIGNAL SYSTEMS
(E.F. ZEER, A.M. PAVLOVA, N.O. SADOVNIKOVA)
Work progress: "Answer the questions in two ways: "YES" if your answer is
affermative, and "No" if you answer to the question in the negatively.
1. Do you often turn to figurative representations to understand something
2. Do you have a craving for drawing?
3. Do you quite understand the language of signs, formulas, graphs?
4. Does it give you pleasure to retell what you have seen to your friends?
5. Are you rather trying to generalize the available information rather, to move
away from specifics to generalized, abstract forms?
6. Does it usually take you a lot of time to rethink what you have seen and
heard what happening around you?
7. Is it easier for you to understand something by turning it in your hands,
assembling, disassembling?
8. Are you trying to enrich your speech with metaphorical expressions?
9. Are drawing, modeling, decorative and applied arts — your favorite
activities?
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10. When explaining something, do you often resort to the language of signs,
symbols, drawings?
11. Do you have any literary abilities?
12. Do you like abstract painting?
13. Do you easily find meaning in abstract images?
14. Have you ever managed to assemble or repair any technical device with
you own hands?
15. Have you ever managed to assemble or repair any technical device with
you own hands?
16. Do you agree that a speech without epithets, metaphors, figurative
expressions is dry and uninter esting?
17. Reading a book, do you vividly imagine what is happening, as if you are
a direct participant of the events?
18. Do you have a good memory for signs, symbols, numbers?
19. Are you considered to be a good storyteller?
20. Do you easily make up some abracadabre for yourself to replace a large
verbal expression?
21. Do you catch yourself thinking that every symbol, sign in a work of art
carries a great meaning?
22. Are you often drawn to needlework, handmade work, crafts?
23. Ones a well-used metaphor, allegory, or parable in a speech make
you happy?
24. Are you trying to build a collection of reproductions of paintings,
art books?
25. Are you fluent in the language of signs, formulas?
26. Do you write poetry?
27. Do your friends tell you that you resort to abstractions too often?
28. Does it happen that you watch the same movie several times, rethinking it
in a new way?
29. Are you been called a master of hands of gold"?
30. Do you like poetry for the originality of statements, interesting
associations?
31. Is the language of visual images more understandable to you than the
language of signs and formulas?
32. Do you try to use shortenings, abbreviations of words to the initial letters
when writing?
33. Do you like performing in front of the audience?
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34. Are your activities related to sign systems, machine languages, etc.?
35. When you going to bed, do you often recall the past day in your memory,
trying to put your impressions in order?
36. Does working with mechanisms bring you pleasure?
37. Do you tend to turn to works of art more often in search of the images,
metaphors, apt expressions, funny statements that you need?
38. Do you have a fertile imagination, a vivid and wild fantasy?
39. Are computer programming languages easy for you?
40. Do you speak foreign languages?
41. Do you sometimes feel tempted to screw a catchy and incomprehensible
phrase in a conversation?
42. Do you tend to think carefully about your actions, reckoning your steps
in advance?
43. Are you capable of technical inventing?
44. Do you like to come up with figurative metaphors?
45. Do you often get caught drawing?
46. Do you often use graphs, formulas to simplify the explanation?
47. Do you spend a lot of time writing poetry?
48. Do you often use abstract signs, images only by you understood in order to
remember something?
49. Do your friends and acquaintances think you are an over profound?
50. Do you have to do a lot of manual work that requires patience and
accuracy?
51. Do you have a good command of the language of metaphors, original
images?
52. Do you often have bright, interesting dreams full of exciting events?
53. You don’t have a problem to come up with your own system of signs,
at least for your own use, do you?
54. Does it bring you pleasure to talk about something so that the words come
out fluently?
55. Do you often use abstract concepts in your speech?
56. Do you usually manage to find your own, pretty unusual meaning in certain
events?
57. It is easier for you to do something with your hands than to solve
theoretical problems?
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