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cosmos having the shape of a shuttlecock. Just as a shuttlecock has a
diameter of zero at its bottommost point and gradually widens on the way
up, the universe, according to the no-boundary proposal, smoothly expanded
from a point of zero size. Hartle and Hawking derived a formula describing
the whole shuttlecock – the so-called “wave function of the universe” that
encompasses the entire past, present and future at once – making moot all
contemplation of seeds of creation, a creator, or any transition from a time
before.
Hartle and Hawking’s proposal radically reconceptualized time. Each
moment in the universe becomes a cross-section of the shuttlecock; while
we perceive the universe as expanding and evolving from one moment to
the next, time really consists of correlations between the universe’s size in
each cross-section and other properties – particularly its entropy, or
disorder. Entropy increases from the cork to the feathers, aiming an
emergent arrow of time. Near the shuttlecock’s rounded-off bottom, though,
the correlations are less reliable; time ceases to exist and is replaced by pure
space.
The no-boundary proposal has fascinated and inspired physicists for
nearly four decades. “It’s a stunningly beautiful and provocative idea,”
said Neil Turok, a cosmologist at the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical
Physics in Waterloo, Canada, and a former collaborator of Hawking’s. The
proposal represented a first guess at the quantum description of the cosmos –
the wave function of the universe. Soon an entire field, quantum cosmology,
sprang up as researchers devised alternative ideas about how the universe
could have come from nothing, analyzed the theories’ various predictions
and ways to test them, and interpreted their philosophical meaning. The noboundary wave function, according to Hartle, “was in some ways the
simplest possible proposal for that.”
For the past year, Neil Turok, Job Feldbrugge of the Perimeter Institute,
and his colleagues Latham Boyle and Kieran Finn have been developing a
new cosmological model that has much in common with the no-boundary
proposal. But instead of one shuttlecock, it envisions two, arranged cork to
cork in a sort of hourglass figure with time flowing in both directions. While
the model is not yet developed enough to make predictions, its charm lies in
the way its lobes realize CPT symmetry, a seemingly fundamental mirror in
nature that simultaneously reflects matter and antimatter, left and right, and
forward and backward in time. One disadvantage is that the universe’s
mirror-image lobes meet at a singularity, a pinch in space-time that requires
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the unknown quantum theory of gravity to understand. Boyle, Finn and
y
Turok take a stab at the singularity, but such an attempt is inherently
speculative.
DEVELOPING ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
WORKING OUT THE MEANING OF UNKNOWN WORDS
TASK 3. THE FOLLOWING WORDS ARE ALL FROM THE TEXT
ABOVE. FIND THEM IN THE TEXT:
interminable smoothl
radically disorder spring up
TASK 4. FOR EACH WORD, READ THE SENTENCE IT OCCURS
IN AND ANSWER THE QUESTIONS:
g) Is the word positive, negative or neutral?
h) Is it a noun, adjective, adverb or verb?
i) Can you think of a word with a similar meaning (synonym) and one
with an opposite meaning (antonym)?
READING COMPREHENTION
TASK 5. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS:
1. What was Hawking’s idea about boundary conditions of the
universe?
2. When and where was the “no-boundary proposal” formulated?
3. What is it about?
4. What does “wave function of the universe” mean?
5. What does time really consist of (according to Hartle and Hawking)?
6. Why can the theory called revolutionary?
7. How has it inspired other physicists?
8. Who are Neil Turok, Latham Boyle and Kieran Finn? How have they
modified Hawking’s theory?
TASK 6. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES:
1. Hawking proposed that…
2. According to Hawking and Hartle, the cosmos…
3. The universe smoothly expanded … just as a …
4. A formula describing the whole shuttlecock …
5. In Hartle and Hawking’s proposal, each…
6. The correlations near the shuttlecock’s rounded-off bottom…
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7. Physicists were fascinated and inspired…
8. Quantum cosmology sprang up as…
9. Recently, a new cosmological model…
10. This model supposes…
TASK 7. MATCH THE WORDS TO THEIR DEFINITIONS:
1) condition a) to think of something in a particular way
2) frequent b) to take the place of something
3) widen c) not mixed with anything else
4) perceive d) to become, or to make something greater in width
5) correlation e) to stop something
6) cease f) deserving trust; dependable
7) replace g) happening often
8) pure
h) to make someone feel that they want to do something
and can do it
9) inspire
i) a connection or relationship between two or more
facts, numbers, etc.
10) reliable j) the particular state that something or someone is in
TASK 8. TRANSLATE THE DEFINITIONS FROM EXERCISE 7
INTO RUSSIAN.
TASK 9. GIVE THE ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS OF THE
FOLLOWING WORDS AND WORD COMBINATIONS
1. Положить конец бесконечному блужданию
2. Плавно расширилась от нулевой точки
3. Волновая функция Вселенной
4. Формула, описывающая волан целиком
5. Охватывать прошлое целиком
6. Ставить под вопрос
7. Поперечное сечение волана
8. Корреляции между размером Вселенной и другими свойствами
9. Поразительно красивая и провокационная идея
10. Недостаточно разработана, чтобы делать прогнозы
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WORD BUILDING
TASK 10. COMPLETE THE WORD FAMILIES IN THE TABLE
BELOW LIKE IN THE EXAMPLE. THANSLATE THEM INTO RUSSIAN
Verb Noun Adjective Adverb
inspire
…
… …
… singularity … …
… charm … …
fascinate … … …
– … … simultaneously
evolve … … …
… … provocative …
SPEAKING
TASK 11. SPEAK ABOUT INFINITY OF THE UNIVERSE. USE
THE QUESTIONS IN TASK 5 AS A PLAN.
TASK 12. DISCUSS THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS WITH YOUR
PARTNER.
1. Do you accept Hawking’s “no-boundary proposal”?
2. Why was it criticized by some physicists?
3. What is the difference between Hawking’s and Turok’s theory?
WRITING
TASK 13. WRITE THE SUMMARY OF THE TEXT “DID THE
UNIVERSE HAVE NO BEGINNING?”
TRANSLATION
TASK 14. READ AND TRANSLATE THE TEXT FROM ENGLISH
INTO RUSSIAN. MAKE THE GLOSSARY TO IT.
Garden of Cosmic Delights
Hartle and Hawking saw a lot of each other from the 1970s on, typically
when they met in Cambridge for long periods of collaboration. The duo’s
theoretical investigations of black holes and the mysterious singularities at
their centers had turned them on to the question of our cosmic origin.
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In 1915, Albert Einstein discovered that concentrations of matter or
energy warp the fabric of space-time, causing gravity. In the 1960s,
Hawking and the Oxford University physicist Roger Penrose proved that
when space-time bends steeply enough, such as inside a black hole or
perhaps during the Big Bang, it inevitably collapses, curving infinitely
steeply toward a singularity, where Einstein’s equations break down and a
new, quantum theory of gravity is needed. The Penrose-Hawking
“singularity theorems” meant there was no way for space-time to begin
smoothly, undramatically at a point.
Hawking and Hartle were thus led to ponder the possibility that the
universe began as pure space, rather than dynamical space-time. And this
led them to the shuttlecock geometry. They defined the no-boundary wave
function describing such a universe using an approach invented by
Hawking’s hero, the physicist Richard Feynman. In the 1940s, Feynman
devised a scheme for calculating the most likely outcomes of quantum
mechanical events. To predict, say, the likeliest outcomes of a particle
collision, Feynman found that you could sum up all possible paths that the
colliding particles could take, weighting straightforward paths more than
convoluted ones in the sum. Calculating this “path integral” gives you the
wave function: a probability distribution indicating the different possible
states of the particles after the collision.
Likewise, Hartle and Hawking expressed the wave function of the
universe – which describes its likely states – as the sum of all possible ways
that it might have smoothly expanded from a point. The hope was that the
sum of all possible “expansion histories,” smooth-bottomed universes of all
different shapes and sizes, would yield a wave function that gives a high
probability to a huge, smooth, flat universe like ours. If the weighted sum of
all possible expansion histories yields some other kind of universe as the
likeliest outcome, the no-boundary proposal fails.
The problem is that the path integral over all possible expansion
histories is far too complicated to calculate exactly. Countless different
shapes and sizes of universes are possible, and each can be a messy affair.
Even the minisuperspace calculation is hard to solve exactly, but physicists
know there are two possible expansion histories that potentially dominate
the calculation. These rival universe shapes anchor the two sides of the
current debate.
Stephen Hawking probably had the best intuition of anyone on these
topics. But he wasn’t always right.
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GRAMMAR FOCUS
VERB PATTERNS. THE GERUND.
Active Passive
Non-perfect writing being written
Perfect having written having been written
The Gerund is a non-finite form of the verb.
Герундий
The Gerund
The Gerund is a non-finite form
of the verb. The other non-finite
verb forms are the Infinitive and
the Participle.
Герундий – это неличная форма
глагола. Другие неличные формы
глагола – инфинитив и причастие.
Forms of Gerund
Gerunds are formed from verbs
by adding ING: be – being; go –
going; play – playing; talk –
talking; write – writing. Gerunds
can be formed from most verbs
(except modal verbs).
The simple active form and the
passive form usually express an
action that is simultaneous with
the action expressed by the main
verb. The perfect form and the
perfect passive form express an
action that precedes the action
expressed by the main verb.
The simple form of the Gerund is
the most common. The compound
Формы герундия
Герундий образуется от глаголов
прибавлением ING: be – being; go –
going; play – playing; talk – talking;
write – writing. Герундий можно
образовать от большинства глаголов
(кроме модальных глаголов).
Простая активная форма и пассивная
форма обычно выражают действие,
одновременное с действием, выраженным основным глаголом. Перфектная форма и перфектная пассивная форма выражают действие,
предшествующее действию, выраженному основным глаголом.
Простая форма герундия наиболее
употребительна. Сложные формы
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forms of the Gerund are used
f
more rarely, mostly in writing.
Forms of Gerund
герундия употребляются реже, в основном в письменной речи.
Формы герундия
Asking questions is his hobby.
(asking – simple form)
I completely forgot having asked
him to wait for me there. (having
asked – perfect form)
She doesn't like being asked such
questions. (being asked – passive
form)
He could not remember ever
having been asked to do such a
thing. (having been asked –
Perfect Passive Form)
Perfect forms
The simple active form of the
Gerund is often used instead o
Простая активная форма герундия
the perfect form in those cases
where it is not necessary to stress
that the action expressed by the
Gerund precedes the action
expressed by the main verb
(provided that the context is
clear). For example:
Задавать вопросы – его хобби.
(asking – простая форма)
Я совсем забыл, что попросил его
подождать меня там. (having asked –
перфектная форма)
Она не любит, когда ей задают такие
вопросы. (being asked – пассивная
форма)
Он не помнил, чтобы его когда-либо
просили сделать такое. (having been
asked – перфектная пассивная
форма)
Перфектные формы
часто употребляется вместо перфектной формы в тех случаях, где
не нужно подчёркивать, что действие, выраженное герундием, предшествует действию, выраженному
основным глаголом (при условии,
что контекст ясен). Например:
I remember asking her about it.
I don't remember being asked
about it.
Passive forms
After the verbs "need, require,
want" in the meaning "need
cleaning, repairing, improving"
Я помню, что я спрашивал её об
этом. Я не помню, чтобы меня
спрашивали об этом.
Пассивные формы
После глаголов "need, require, want"
в значении «нуждаться в чистке,
ремонте, улучшении» и после
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and after the adjective "worth",
b
f
f
b
the active form of the Gerund is
used, not the passive form.
прилагательного "worth" (стоящий
чего-то), употребляется активная
форма герундия, а не пассивная.
This lock needs repairing.
Negative forms
Depending on the meaning, the
negative particle "not" is placed
etween the auxiliary verb and the
main verb (to negate the action o
the main verb) or before the
Gerund (to negate the action o
the Gerund).
"Not" between the auxiliary verb
and the main verb: He did not
apologize for losing my book.
"Not" before the Gerund: He was
fined for not paying his debt.
Note: Gerunds and Present
Participles
The Gerund and the Present
Participle have the same forms
ut are used differently. The
Gerund functions as a noun. For
example: Growing crystals is a
difficult task.
Этот замок нужно починить.
Отрицательные формы
В зависимости от значения, от-
рицательная частица "not" ставится
между вспомогательным и основным глаголом (для отрицания действия основного глагола) или перед
герундием (для отрицания действия
герундия).
"Not" между вспомогательным и
основным глаголом: Он не извинился за то, что потерял мою книгу.
"Not" перед герундием: Он был
оштрафован за неуплату долга.
Примечание: Герундий и причастие настоящего времени
Герундий и причастие настоящего
времени имеют одинаковые формы,
но употребляются по-разному. Герундий функционирует как существительное. Например: Выращивание
кристаллов – трудная задача.
The present participle is used in
the formation of the continuous
tenses and is also used as an
adjective. For example: She is
reading books. Reading books
needs a lot of time.
Причастие настоящего времени
используется в образовании продолженных времён, а также употребляется как прилагательное.
Например: Она читает книги. На
чтение книг нужно много времени.
38
Properties and functions of
Gerunds
The Gerund names an action or
state and functions as a noun.
Свойства и функции герундия
Герундий называет действие или
состояние и функционирует как
существительное.
The Gerund has some properties
of the verb. Like verbs, Gerunds
have active, passive, and perfect
forms (sending, being sent, having
sent, having been sent), can take a
direct object (He likes watching
films), and can be modified by an
adverb (He is used to working
late).
The Gerund has some properties
of the noun and can function as
the subject (Swimming is good
for health), as a predicative noun
(His hobby is travelling), as an
object (He enjoys reading), as an
attribute (The risk of losing
money scares him), and as an
adverbial modifier (He called her
before leaving).
Gerunds and Nouns
Like Nouns, Gerunds often stand
after prepositions: They left after
signing the agreement.
Герундий имеет некоторые свойства
глагола. Как и глаголы, герундий
имеет активные, пассивные и перфектные формы (sending, being sent,
having sent, having been sent), может
принимать прямое дополнение (Он
любит смотреть фильмы) и может
определяться наречием (Он привык
работать допоздна).
Герундий имеет некоторые свойства
существительного и может функционировать как подлежащее (Плавание полезно для здоровья), как
предикативное существительное (Его
хобби – путешествия), как дополнение (Ему нравится чтение), как
определение (Риск потерять деньги
пугает его), как обстоятельство (Он
позвонил ей перед уходом).
Герундий и существительные
Как и существительные, герундий
часто стоит после предлогов: Они ушли после того, как подписали договор.
Like nouns, Gerunds can stand
after possessive forms of nouns
and pronouns: Mike's coming
home so late worries us.
Как и существительные, герундий
может стоять после притяжательных
форм существительных и местоимений: Приход Майка домой так поздно беспокоит нас.
39
If it is clear who performs the
f
action expressed by the Gerund,
the possessive forms are not
necessary.
Если ясно, кто выполняет действие,
выраженное герундием, притяжательные формы не нужны.
In many cases, it is preferable to
use a suitable noun instead of a
Gerund. For example: "the time o
his arrival; his departure; during
the flight", not "the time of his
arriving; his departing; during
flying".
Substitutes
Examples of the use of Gerunds in
different functions in sentences
are given in this material. But it
does not mean that only the
Gerund is used in such situations.
In many cases, you can use nouns,
Infinitives, verbs, and simpler
constructions instead of Gerunds.
For example:
Your not wanting to go there
surprises me. – I'm surprised that
you don't want to go there.
In general, it is advisable for
language learners to use Gerunds
only in those cases which are
frequently found in textbooks and
in other educational materials.
Во многих случаях, предпочтительно употребить подходящее
существительное вместо герундия.
Например: "the time of his arrival; his
departure; during the flight", а не "the
time of his arriving; his departing;
during flying".
Заменители
Примеры употребления герундия в
различных функциях в предложениях даны в данном материале. Но
это не значит, что только герундий
употребляется в таких ситуациях.
Во многих случаях можно употребить существительное, инфинитив,
глагол и более простые конструкции
вместо герундия. Например:
Ваше нежелание идти туда удивляет
меня. – Я удивлён, что вы не хотите
идти туда.
В целом, изучающим язык целе-
сообразно употреблять герундий
только в тех случаях, которые часто
встречаются в учебниках и в других
учебных материалах.
Depending on the context and
meaning, Gerunds are translated
into Russian as nouns, verbs,
Infinitives, or adverbial Participles.
В зависимости от контекста и зна-
чения, герундий переводится на русский язык как существительное,
глагол, инфинитив, или деепричастие.
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