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Файл:Английский для инженеров-физиков. Фотоника и оптоинформатика. English for Students of Physics (Photonics). Учебное пособие
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Selected work
Razumova is best known for her early experimental research in the
tokamak line.
Inspired by the theoretical work of Vitaly Shafranov, she developed a
macroscopically stable plasma in the tokamak TM-2 in 1963., opening the
way to a world-wide shift of the nuclear fusion programme towards the
tokamak line.
Experiments carried out by her at this tokamak, along with results
obtained on the T-3 and T-4 tokamaks, convinced the scientific community
that the pessimistic forecasts for the future of magnetic confinement based
on the Bohm formula were unfounded. In 1971, she was awarded the USSR
State Prize for creating and investigating high temperature thermonuclear
plasmas in tokamaks. Her work contributed to the very fast development of
the tokamak line in the 1970s.
She was a pioneer on the study of MHD instabilities and disruptions in
tokamaks. In 1962, she and her colleagues were the first to observe the
disruption instability in a tokamak.
She was the first to implement a method to measure the plasma energy
based on the diamagnetic effect, still in use these days.
With V. Alikaev, she demonstrated plasma heating by Electron
Cyclotron in the TM-3 tokamak. Her team also investigated runaway
electrons in tokamaks.
Since the mid 1980s her interest has shifted to investigation on plasma
transport, in particular to the study of profile consistency and plasma selforganization.
She is as active now as she was in her younger years, and is always
eager to discuss new ideas and experiments.
word translation
1 the Institute of Nuclear Fusion
2 plasma physics
3 tokamak line
4 Magnetic confinement fusion
5 to develop a macroscopically stable plasma
6 the pessimistic forecasts for the future of magnetic
confinement
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7 to investigate high temperature thermonuclear plasmas in
tokamaks
8 to observe the disruption instability in a tokamak
9 to implement a method
10 runaway electrons
11 the study of profile consistency and plasma self-organization
TASK 14. WRITE THE SUMMARY TO THE TEXT
TASK 15. RETELL THE TEXT
TASK 16. READ THE TEXT AND FILL IN THE GLOSSARY.
TRANSLATE THE TEXT FROM ENGLISH INTO RUSSIAN
Zhores Alferov
Zhores Ivanovich Alferov (1930-2019) was a Soviet and Russian
physicist and academic who contributed significantly to the creation of
modern heterostructure physics and electronics. He shared the 2000 Nobel
Prize in Physics for the development of the semiconductor heterojunction
for optoelectronics. He also became a politician in his later life, serving in
the lower house of the Russian parliament, the State Duma, as a member of
the communist party since 1995.
Early life and education
Alferov was born in Vitebsk, Byelorussian SSR, Soviet Union. Alferov
graduated from secondary school in Minsk in 1947 and started Belarusian
Polytechnic Academy. In 1952, he received his B.S. from the V. I. Ulyanov
(Lenin) Electrotechnical Institute (LETI) in Leningrad. Starting in 1953,
Alferov worked in the Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute of the Academy of
Sciences of the Soviet Union. From the institute, he earned several scientific
degrees: a Candidate of Sciences in Technology in 1961 and a Doctor of
Sciences in Physics and Mathematics in 1970.
Alferov then served as the director of the Ioffe Institute from 1987 to
2003. He was elected a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences
of the Soviet Union in 1972, and a full member in 1979. From 1989, he was
Vice-President of the USSR Academy of Sciences and President of its Saint
Petersburg Scientific Center. In 1995 he became a member of the State
Duma on the list of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation.
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Research
Starting at Ioffe Institute in 1953, Alferov worked with a group led by
Vladimir Tuchkevich, who became director of the Ioffe Institute in 1967, on
planar semiconductor amplifiers for use in radio receivers.
These planar
semiconductor amplifiers would be referred to as transistors in the present
day. Alferov's contribution included work on germanium diodes for use as a
rectifier.
In the early 1960s, Alferov organized an effort at Ioffe Institute to
develop semiconductor heterostructures. Semiconductor heterojunctions
transistors enabled higher frequency use than their homojunction
predecessors, and this capability plays a key role in modern mobile phone
and satellite communications. Alferov and colleagues worked on GaAs and
AlAs III-V heterojunctions. A particular focus was the use of
heterojunctions to create semiconductor lasers capable of lasing at room
temperature. In 1963, Alferov filed a patent application proposing doubleheterostructure lasers; Herbert Kroemer independently filed a US patent
several months later. In 1966, Alferov's lab created the first lasers based on
heterostructures, although they did not lase continuously. Then in 1968,
Alferov and coworkers produced the first continuous-wave semiconductor
heterojunction laser operating at room temperature.
This achievement came
a month ahead of Izuo Hayashi and Morton Panish of Bell Labs also
producing a continuous-wave room-temperature heterojunction laser.
It was for this work that Alferov received the 2000 Nobel Prize in
Physics together with Herbert Kroemer, "for developing semiconductor
heterostructures used in high-speed- and optoelectronics".
In the 1960s and 1970s Alferov continued his work on the physics and
technology of semiconductor heterostructures in his lab at the Ioffe Institute.
Alferov's investigations of injection properties of semiconductors and his
contributions to the development of lasers, solar cells, LEDs, and epitaxy
processes, led to the creation of modern heterojunction physics and electronics. The development of semiconductor heterojunctions revolutionized
semiconductor design, and had a range of immediate commercial
applications including LEDs, barcode readers and CDs. Hermann
Grimmeiss of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, which awards
Nobel prizes, said: "Without Alferov, it would not be possible to transfer all
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the information from satellites down to the Earth or to have so many
telephone lines between cities."
Alferov had an almost messianic conception of heterostructures,
writing: "Many scientists have contributed to this remarkable progress,
which not only determines in large measure the future prospects of solid
state physics but in a certain sense affects the future of human society as
well."
Scientific administration
In 1987, Alferov became the fifth director of the Ioffe Institute. In 1989,
Alferov gained the administrative position of chairman of the Leningrad
Scientific Center, now referred to as the St. Petersburg Scientific Center. In
the Leningrad region, this scientific center is an overarching organization
comprising 70 institutions, organizations, enterprises, and scientific
societies.
As a director and chairman, Alferov sought to ensure support for
scientific research through a time of changing political and economic
conditions.
Alferov worked to foster relationships between early educational
institutions and scientific research institutions to train the next generation of
scientists, citing Peter the Great's vision for the Russian Academy of
Sciences to be organized with a scientific research core in close contact with
a gymnasium (secondary school).
In 1987, Alferov and colleagues at the
Ioffe Institute established a secondary school in Saint Petersburg, the School
of Physics and Technology, under the umbrella of the Ioffe charter. In 1997
Alferov founded the Research and Education Center at the Ioffe Institute
and in 2002, this center officially became a new university, the Saint
Petersburg Academic University, after gaining a charter to award masters
and PhD degrees. In 2009, the Saint Petersburg Academic University was
reorganized to officially combine the secondary school, School of Physics
and Technology, within the organizational structure of the university,
closely linking scientific education to research.
In the 2000s, through his role in academic administration and in
parliament, Alferov advocated for and worked to advance Russia's
nanotechnology sector. The primary research charter of the Saint Petersburg
Academic University, which Alferov founded, was the development of
nanotechnology. Alferov provided a consistent voice in parliament in favor
of increased scientific funding.
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1 heterostructure physics and
word translation
electronics
2 to earn several scientific degrees
3 planar semiconductor amplifiers for
use in radio receivers
4 germanium diodes
5 a rectifier
6 lasers
7 solar cells
8 LEDs
9 epitaxy
TASK 17. WRITE THE SUMMARY TO THE TEXT
TASK 18. RETELL THE TEXT
TASK 19. READ THE TEXTS AND TRANSLATE THEM INTO
RUSSIAN. CHOOSE ONE OF THE SCIENTISTS AND PREPARE A
PRESENTATION ABOUT HIM. PRESENT IT TO THE GROUP. YOUR
PRESENTATION SHOULD HAVE THE FOLLOWING STRUCTURE:
1. AN INTRODUCTION
This is the most important part of your presentation because the
audience will make judgements about you. They will decide in the first few
minutes what you are like. They will also decide whether you deserve their
attention. Therefore, it is very important that you plan carefully what you
want to say in the introduction.
Try to do these things in your introduction. Get the audience’s
attention. Introduce yourself. Explain why you are there. Explain what you
hope to achieve. Build a good relationship with the audience.
USEFUL LANGUAGE
Introduction and welcome. Good morning, ladies and gentleman. My
name's John Jones. I'm head of sales at Acme Services. I would like to thank
you for inviting me here today to talk about...
I would like to thank you all for attending this presentation. I plan to be
brief. I will only take about fifteen minutes of your time. If you have any
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questions, I'd be very happy to answer them at the end. Feel free to interrupt
me if you have any questions during my presentation. (Not recommended
unless your English level is good.
Explaining the purpose of your presentation. I'd like to give you a brief
presentation about... The subject of my talk is... I'm going to talk about... My
topic today is... My talk is concerned with... The purpose of my talk is to...
Giving an overview of the presentation. I'm going to divide this talk
into four parts. There are a number of points I'd like to make. Basically, I
have three things to say. This talk is designed to be a springboard for
discussion on the topic of... I'd like to begin by... Let's begin by... First of
all, I'll discuss... and then I'll go on to talk about. Then... / Next,...
Secondly,... / Thirdly,... Finally,... / Lastly,...
2. THE MAIN BODY
You should use this part of the presentation to explain key information.
Explain your points clearly one at a time so your audience can follow what
you are saying. Remember to keep your points simple and short. Try not to
give too much information, otherwise the audience will not remember your
message.
USEFUL LANGUAGE
Starting a new section. Moving on now to Turning now to... Let's turn
now to… So that brings me now to the topic of... The next area I'd like to
focus on next is Now, we'll move on to... I'd now like to discuss... Let's now
look at...
Finishing a section. That's all I have to say about... So, in this section,
we've looked at... Well, I think I've said enough about.
Analysing a point in your presentation. Where does that lead us? Let's
consider this in more detail... I'd like to elaborate on what I said earlier
about What does this mean for...? Translated into real terms, this means
that... Why is this important? The significance of this is... On the one
hand,... on the other hand...
Giving examples. For example,... A good example of this is... As an
illustration, I'd like to mention... To give you an example... To illustrate this
point,...
Paraphrasing and clarifying. Simply put... In other words... So what I'm
saying is.. To put it more simply... To put it another way...
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3. THE CONCLUSION
It is important to create a lasting impression in your conclusion. Use the
last couple of minutes to repeat important points and key information. Leave
some time for discussion, questions and answers at the end of the
presentation. Don’t forget to thank your audience for attending and
listening.
USEFUL LANGUAGE
Summarising the content of your presentation. To sum up,... To
summarise,... In short,... Right then, let's sum up, shall we? Let's summarise
briefly what we've looked at... If I can just sum up the main points,...
Finally, let me remind you of some of the issues we've covered.
So, to remind you of what I've covered in this talk,... Unfortunately, I seem
to have run out of time, so I'll conclude very briefly by saying that...
I'd now like to recap on the points I've mentioned.
Closing the presentation. To conclude... In conclusion,... Well, that
covers all I wanted to say today. Before I finish let me say just one last
thing. That brings me to the end of my presentation. It just remains for me to
say, thank you very much for coming and I hope you have found this
presentation useful.
Invitation to ask questions. Does anyone have any questions or
comments? Please feel free to ask questions. If you would like me to
elaborate on any point I've made today, please ask. Would you like to ask
any questions? Any questions?
Checking comprehension. Does that answer your question? Is that
clear? May we go on then to the next question? I hope I've made that clear.
So what you're saying is,... is that right? It seems I don't have time to
answer any more of your questions now. But please feel free to come and
talk to me later on today.
4. THE VISUAL AIDS
These are things (resources) you could use to present your message. It is
important to use visual aids because they can: help the audience focus on
what you are saying, make the presentation more interesting, help to explain
the points you make more clearly, provide variety. When preparing your
visual aids make sure you do these things:
1. Check that the size of the print is large enough for the audience
to see.
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2. Don’t type all your text in capital letters as this makes it more
difficult to read.
3. Don’t use long sentences – use bullet points and numbers to organize
your key рoints.
4. Use a type of text that is easy to read (e.g. Arial)
5. Add pictures, illustrations, diagrams to make it more interesting and
use colour.
USEFUL LANGUAGE
Referring to photos, graphs or tables. If you'd like to look at this graph,
you'll see... Take a look at this table. Here, we can see quite clearly that...
This chart illustrates... Let me show you a pie-chart that will make
everything much clearer.
PROMINENT FOREIGN PHYSICISTS
Isaac Newton
Co-inventor of calculus, a major contributor to the science of optics and
a gifted mathematician, Isaac Newton (1643-1727), who was born in
Lincolnshire, outlined the laws of mechanics that now underpin vast swaths
of classical physics. Most important of all, Newton outlined the principle of
gravity, which explained how the planets revolve round the sun. During his
life, he was showered with honours, including the presidency of the Royal
Society. He is renowned as a supreme rationalist, though he actually wrote
more about alchemy and religion, including a 300,000-word treatise that
attempted to prove the pope was really the Antichrist and an “apocalyptic
whore”.
Niels Bohr
Born in Copenhagen, Bohr (1885-1962) developed the modern idea of
an atom, which has a nucleus at the centre with electrons revolving round it.
When electrons move from one energy level to another, they emit discrete
quanta of energy. The work won Bohr a Nobel prize in 1922. For his
achievements, Carlsberg brewery gave Bohr a special gift: a house with a
pipeline connected to its brewery next door, thus providing him with free
beer for life. In 1954, Bohr helped establish Cern, the European particle
physics facility. In 1975, his son, Aage, won a Nobel for research on atomic
nuclei.
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Galileo Galilei
Born in Pisa, Galileo (1564–1642) initially trained as a doctor. On
hearing of the invention of the telescope in 1609, he built his own and
turned it to the heavens, revealing the existence of sunspots and a pitted,
mountainous surface on the moon: the heavens were not incorruptible. His
studies also provided support for the idea that the Earth revolves round the
sun. This got Galileo into considerable trouble with the Catholic church and
he was forced to abandon that backing in 1633. His work on falling bodies
also laid the groundwork for Newton’s subsequent theories.
Albert Einstein
Three great theories define our physical knowledge of the universe:
relativity, quantum mechanics and gravitation. The first is the handiwork of
German-born Albert Einstein (1879–1955), who remains the physicist with
the greatest reputation for originality of thought. His work showed that
space and time are not immutable but are fluid and malleable. Einstein, who
took US citizenship in 1940, also provided the world with its most famous
equation, E=mc2, which demonstrates the equivalence of mass and energy.
His name has become synonymous with the idea of genius and he died
a celebrity. He was awarded the 1921 Nobel prize for physics.
James Maxwell
In contrast to Newton and Einstein, Edinburgh-born Maxwell (1831-79)
is virtually unknown to the general public. Yet his contribution to physics
was every bit as significant, particularly his discovery of the theory of
electromagnetism. This showed that electricity, magnetism and light are all
manifestations of the same phenomenon, the electromagnetic field. The
development of radio, TV and radar were the direct consequences. Maxwell
also carried out pioneering work in optics and colour vision. However, in
his later years, his God-fearing Scottish upbringing brought him into dispute
with the evolutionary thinking of Darwin and others and he wrote papers
denouncing natural selection.
Michael Faraday
Largely self-educated, Faraday (1791–1867) became one of the greatest
scientists of his day thanks to the patronage of the eminent English chemist
Humphry Davy, who hired him as an assistant in 1813. Faraday went on to
establish the idea of the electromagnetic field and discovered electromag-
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netic induction and the laws of electrolysis. His electromagnetic devices
formed the foundation of electric motor technology. He twice rejected offers
of a knighthood and when asked to advise on chemical weapons for the
Crimean war effort, refused on ethical grounds. Einstein kept a picture of
Faraday on his study wall (alongside pictures of Newton and Maxwell).
Marie Curie
The first woman to win a Nobel and the first person to win two separate
Nobels, Curie (1867-1934) was born in Poland and won her first Nobel in
1903 with husband, Pierre, for discovering radioactivity. However, she was
not allowed to participate in the keynote lecture winners give because she
was a woman. After Pierre died in a road accident in 1906, she won her
second Nobel in 1911 for discovering radium, though an attempt was made
to rescind it when news emerged of her affair with married colleague Paul
Langevin. After collecting the prize, Curie was pilloried by the French
press. Langevin was ignored.
Richard FEynman
One of the 20th century’s most influential and colourful physicists,
Feynman (1918–88) played a key role in the development of quantum
electrodynamics, the theory that describes how light and matter interact,
earning him a Nobel prize in 1965. Feynman also contributed to the fields of
quantum computing and nanotechnology and was a member of the Rogers
Commission that lambasted Nasa over the destruction of space shuttle
Challenger in 1986. He was a keen drummer, experimented with drugs and
often worked on physics problems in topless bars because he said they
helped him concentrate. Feynman died in 1988, aged 69.
Ernest Rutherford
New Zealand-born Rutherford (1871–1937) is considered one of the
greatest of all experimental physicists. He discovered the idea of radioactive
half-life and showed that radioactivity involved the transmutation of one
chemical element to another. He was awarded a Nobel in 1908 “for his
investigations into the disintegration of the elements”. Rutherford later
became director of the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge University
where, under his leadership, the neutron was discovered by James Chadwick
in 1932 and the first experiment to split the nucleus was carried out by John
Cockcroft and Ernest Walton. The element rutherfordium was named after
him in 1997.
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