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Файл:Английский для инженеров-физиков. Фотоника и оптоинформатика. English for Students of Physics (Photonics). Учебное пособие
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ними не употребляется частица to. Смысловые глаголы употребляются
после модальных глаголов без частицы to (Исключение ought to)
I can speak English. (Я могу говорить по-английски.)
Вопросительная форма образуется передвижением модального
глагола на первое место в предложении: Must you go to the University
tomorrow? (You must go to the University tomorrow.)
В отрицательном предложении после модального глагола упот-
ребляется частица not (cannot, must not, should not): She cannot give you
her text-book.
Глаголы can, may имеют формы настоящего и прошедшего
времени: can (could), may (might).
Глагол must имеет только одну форму. Чтобы отнести его к прошедшему или будущему времени нужно использовать его
эквиваленты: to be to, to have to
З
НАЧЕНИЯ МОДАЛЬНЫХ ГЛАГОЛОВ
Present Past Эквиваленты
can
(мочь, уметь)
may
(мочь, можно)
must
(должен)
should, ought to
(нужно, следует)
could
might
–
to be able to
(смочь)
to be allowed to
(разрешать; давать)
to be to (должен, нужно)
to have to (вынужден, придется)
1. Study the grammar table with the Perfect Infinitive.
Значение Перевод
may + Perfect
предположение
возможно, может быть
Infinitive
must + Perfect
Infinitive
could + Perfect
Infinitive
большая степень вероятности
действие, которое могло
бы произойти, но не сос-
должно быть, вероятно
возможно, мог, мог бы
тоялось
11
might + Perfect
f
упр
р
initive
In
should + Perfect
Infinitive
малая вероятность совершения действия
сожаление о том, что
действие не совершилось,
мог бы
следовало бы, должен
был бы, надо бы
ек или порицание
ought + Perfect
Infinitive
cаn not и could
not + Perfect
Infinitive
сожаление о том, что
действие не совершилось.
Уп
ек или порицание.
сомнение в возможности
совершения действия в
прошлом
следовало бы, должен
был бы, надо бы
не может быть, чтобы
+ глагол в прошедшем
времени, не мог + неопределенная форма глагола
2. Translate the sentences from English into Russian.
1. Heavy graders are used when large volumes of soil have to be
handled.
2. The device can provide great opportunities.
3. Scrapers should be used on moderate wet sandy soils.
4. It must be understood that engine requirements differ considerably.
5. Such substances may cause cancer.
6. Hazardous consequences should be vastly lowered.
7. Global warming may result in profound shifts of climate.
8. The material may be discharged with the help of various devices.
9. The results of the experiment can be easily calculated.
10. Consumers should ask about the contents of dangerous substances.
11. The cost of the production could be cut more than 50%.
12. The share arm can be raised with a disk knife.
13. Depending on the style, the resistor may be encapsulated in lacquer,
high temperature cement or by molding.
14. Infectious diseases can spread very fast.
15. Ethanol can be fatal if ingested, inhaled or absorbed through the
skin.
12
MODULE 2. CHAOS AND ORDER
TASK 1. BEFORE YOU READ:
1. What do you know about chaos?
2. How do you think: can order generate chaos?
3. Is the solar system predictable?
VOCABULARY
1. motion – движение
2. swirling – крутящийся, циркулирующий
3. intricate – сложный, запутанный
4. pendulum – маятник
5. DNA molecule – молекула ДНК
6. dismay – смятение
7. frontiers – границы
8. predetermined – предопределенный
9. everlasting –непреходящий
10. intents – намерения
TASK 2. READ THE TEXT:
Does Chaos Rule the Cosmos?
Chaos surrounds us, and yet so do orderly patterns. Scientists are now
trying to discover how they can coexist.
Science has long been based on the notion that law and order rule the
universe. In the sixteenth century the German astronomer Johannes Kepler
reduced the motion of the planets to three simple laws that guided them
along elliptical orbits. His work led Isaac Newton to discover a law of
gravitation that applied to any object in the universe. The universe,
scientists subsequently assumed, is a predictable, clockwork system.
13
Some parts are more complex than others – the workings of a swirling
p
galaxy, for example, are rather more intricate than those of a pendulum –
but directing even the most complex part is the same rule of order, though it
may be imperceptible to our limited brain power. Simple causes always
produce simple effects, the reasoning went, and complexity must result
either from complicated rules or from the interaction of large numbers of
things. Thus the simple geometric shape of a planet’s orbit – an ellipse –
was seen as a direct consequence of the simplicity of the law of gravity,
while the complexity of the DNA molecule was considered a consequence
of the huge number of ways in which its atoms could be arranged.
Imagine Newton’s and Kepler’s dismay if they could have read the July 3
issue of the journal Science this year. In it Gerald Sussman and Jack
Wisdom, a computer scientist and an astronomer, respectively, at MIT,
announced that the entire solar system is unpredictable. Without an
infinitely precise knowledge of the location and velocity of the planets at
any given moment, our Newtonian calculations will be completely wrong
after a mere 4 million years. Such startling findings about the changeable
nature of the universe are appearing more and more frequently at the
frontiers of today’s mathematics.
We now know that rigid, predetermined, simple laws can lead not only
to predictable, everlasting pattern but also to behavior so complex and
irregular that it appears to all intents and purposes random. This
phenomenon is called chaos.
Chaos raises some fundamental questions about the universe: since
order can generate chaos as well as pattern, what is the role of natural law?
Is it chaos, not order, that rules the universe? And where do nature’s
complex patterns come from, if not from simple laws? At the moment
scientists have only begun to ask these questions, and so answers are a long
way off. For now they must be content to try to investigate chaos in many
different phenomena. Ecologists, biologists, astronomers, chemists,
economists, physicists – all have found chaos in their own disciplines.
DEVELOPING ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
WORKING OUT THE MEANING OF UNKNOWN WORDS
TASK 3. THE FOLLOWING WORDS ARE ALL FROM THE TEXT
ABOVE. FIND THEM IN THE TEXT:
redictable imperceptible dismay startling content
14
TASK 4. FOR EACH WORD, READ THE SENTENCE IT OCCURS
IN AND ANSWER THE QUESTIONS:
d) Is the word positive, negative or neutral?
e) Is it a noun, adjective, adverb or verb?
f) Can you think of a word with a similar meaning (synonym) and one
with an opposite meaning (antonym)?
READING COMPREHENTION
TASK 5. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS:
1. Who suggested three simple laws that guided the motion of the
planets along elliptical orbits?
2. What led Isaac Newton to discover a law of gravitation applying to
any object in the universe?
3. What is the difference between the workings of a swirling galaxy and
those of a pendulum? And what is similar about them?
4. How was the simple geometric shape of a planet’s orbit seen?
5. What was the complexity of the DNA molecule considered?
6. Is the entire solar system is predictable according to Gerald Sussman
and Jack Wisdom?
7. What is chaos according to the text?
8. What fundamental questions does chaos raise?
9. In what disciplines can chaos be found?
TASK 6. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES:
1. Scientists are now trying to discover…
2. For a long time scientists thought that…
3. The universe was considered…
4. It may be difficult for us to realize that…
5. Complicated rules as well as … was thought to result in …
6. The simplicity of the law of gravity was thought the cause of…
7. The huge number of ways in which its atoms could be arranged was
thought to be the consequence of…
8. According to Gerald Sussman and Jack Wisdom…
9. Our Newtonian calculations will be completely wrong after a mere
4 million years Modern particle physics investigates…
10. The changeable nature of the universe…
15
11. Rigid, predetermined, simple laws can lead to … as well as …
12. Chaos may be investigated…
13. Ecologists, biologists, astronomers, chemists, economists,
physicists can…
TASK 7. MATCH THE WORDS TO THEIR DEFINITIONS:
1) motion
a) the curved path through
which objects in space move around a planet or star
2) elliptical
b) doing something unexpected that surprises and
sometimes worries a person
3) orbit
c) a general rule that states what
always happens when the same conditions exist
4) law
d) moving quickly with
a twisting, circular movement
5) swirling e) having an oval shape
6) gravity f) borders
7) huge g) whole or complete, with nothing missing
8) entire
h) a natural phenomenon by which all things with
mass or energy are brought towards one another
9) startling i) extremely large in size or amount
10) frontiers j) the act or process of moving
TASK 8. TRANSLATE THE DEFINITIONS FROM EXERCISE 7
INTO RUSSIAN
TASK 9. GIVE THE ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS OF THE
FOLLOWING WORDS AND WORD COMBINATIONS
1. основана на понятии, что…
2. непостижимо для наших умственных способностей
3. простые
причины – простые последствия
4. рассматривалась как простое следствие
5. без бесконечно точного знания
6. предсказуемая, неизменная модель
7. изменчивая природа Вселенной
16
WORD BUILDING
j
p
p
p
p
p
TASK 10. COMPLETE THE WORD FAMILIES IN THE TABLE
BELOW LIKE IN THE EXAMPLE. THANSLATE THEM INTO RUSSIAN
Verb Noun Ad
… …
ective Adverb
recise …
… interaction … …
… … im
… sim
licity … …
… … un
… …
erceptible …
redictable …
redetermined …
… … … completely
SPEAKING
TASK 11. SPEAK ABOUT CHAOS AND ORDER. USE THE
QUESTIONS IN TASK 5 AS A PLAN
TASK 12. DISCUSS THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS WITH YOUR
PARTNER
1. What rules the universe, chaos or order?
2. Do you agree with Gerald Sussman and Jack Wisdom’s theory?
3. “Ecologists, biologists, astronomers, chemists, economists, physicists –
all have found chaos in their own disciplines”. Can you find chaos in your
field of study?
WRITING
TASK 13. WRITE THE SUMMARY OF THE TEXT "DOES CHAOS
RULE THE COSMOS?"
TRANSLATION
TASK 14. READ AND TRANSLATE THE TEXT FROM ENGLISH
INTO RUSSIAN. MAKE THE GLOSSARY TO IT
Chaos was first uncovered in the field of dynamics, which grew out of
Newton’s laws of motion and gravitation. Dynamics studies how systems
change over time. Traditionally researchers approached dynamics
quantitatively. The state of the system – say, the positions of the planets and
their orbiting speed and direction – was given in numerical values, and the
job of the dynamicist was to calculate how those numbers change over time.
17
Now, however, the approach has become qualitative – researchers are
f
looking to say things about the general features of the system.
Underneath the confusion, is chaos really at work? Perhaps it would be
useful to think of an atom as some kind of vibrating droplet of cosmic fluid.
Radioactive atoms would vibrate very energetically, and every so often a
smaller drop could split off--what we would perceive as decay. The
vibrations would be too rapid for us to measure in detail, so that we could
only measure averaged quantities such as energy levels. Now, classical
mechanics tells us that a drop of fluid can vibrate chaotically. Its motion is
deterministic – in other words, it is ruled by simple, comprehensible laws –
but it is unpredictable. Occasionally, seemingly at random, the vibrations
conspire to split off a tiny droplet. The butterfly effect makes such an event
unpredictable; but it has well-defined statistics, a half- life. Could the
apparently random decay of radioactive atoms be something similar but on a
microcosmic scale? After all, why are there any statistical regularities at all?
Are they traces of an underlying determinism? Where else can statistical
regularities come from? Unfortunately, as with so many other applications
of chaos, nobody has yet made this seductive idea work. But it would be an
appealing way to render the deity’s dice deterministic. Chaos may be
making many great scientists turn in their graves, but perhaps it can at least
keep the shade of Einstein happy.
GRAMMAR FOCUS
THE PARTICIPLES
English verbs have two
participles: the present participle
(typing, writing) and the past
participle (typed, written).
Participles have some qualities o
verbs and are used in the
formation of the continuous,
perfect and perfect continuous
tenses (he is typing; he has written
a letter).
Английские глаголы имеют два
причастия: причастие настоящего
времени (typing, writing) и причастие прошедшего времени (typed,
written).
Причастия имеют некоторые
свойства глаголов и используются в
образовании продолженных, перфектных и перфектных продолженных времён (он печатает; он
написал письмо).
18
Participles have some qualities of
b
adjectives and are used as
attributes in a sentence (a smiling
girl; surprised faces).
Причастия имеют некоторые свойства прилагательных и употребляются как определения в предложении (улыбающаяся девочка;
удивлённые лица).
Participles are also used in the
function of adverbial modifiers
(he opened the door, smiling;
surprised, he didn't know what to
Причастия также употребляются в
функции обстоятельств (он открыл
дверь, улыбаясь; удивлённый, он не
знал, что сказать).
say).
A participle construction, that is, a
participle together with the words
closely connected with it, can
function as an attribute (the
student sitting at the table) or as
an adverbial modifier (standing by
the window, she watched the
people). Participle constructions
(participial constructions) are
usually called "participial
Причастный оборот, то есть
причастие вместе со словами, тесно
связанными с ним, может быть в
функции определения (студент,
сидящий за столом) или в функции
обстоятельства (стоя у окна, она
наблюдала за людьми). Причастные
обороты обычно называются
"participial phrases" или "participial
clauses".
phrases" or "participial clauses".
English participles are translated
into Russian with the help of
verbs, adjectives, participles,
adverbial participles. Russian
adverbial participle has no
corresponding form in English.
Formation of Participles
Present Participle
The present participle is formed
y adding "ing" to the base form
of the verb: flying, playing,
running, sleeping, working.
Английские причастия переводятся
на русский язык с помощью
глаголов, прилагательных, причастий, деепричастий. Русское деепричастие не имеет соответствующей
ему формы в английском языке.
Образование причастий
Причастие настоящего времени
Причастие настоящего времени
образуется прибавлением "ing" к
базовой форме глагола: flying,
playing, running, sleeping, working.
19
The present participle expresses
b
b
b
(
active meaning: doing, flying,
playing, reading.
Причастие настоящего времени выражает активное значение: делающий,
летящий, играющий, читающий.
Past Participle
Regular verbs form the past
participle by adding "ed" to the
ase form of the verb: moved,
played, stopped, typed.
Irregular verbs form the past
participle mostly by changing the
root of the word: broken, flown,
read, sold, taken, written.
The past participle expresses
passive meaning: done, moved,
played.
The Present Participle
The present participle (of the
main verb) is used in the
formation of the continuous and
perfect continuous tenses.
Continuous tenses: He is working
now. She will be writing letters at
four o'clock.
Причастие прошедшего времени
Правильные глаголы образуют
причастие прошедшего времени
прибавлением "ed" к базовой форме
глагола: moved, played, stopped,
typed.
Неправильные глаголы образуют
причастие прошедшего времени в
основном изменением корня слова:
roken, flown, read, sold, taken,
written.
Причастие прошедшего времени
выражает страдательное значение:
сделанный, сдвинутый, сыгранный.
Причастие настоящего времени
Причастие настоящего времени
(основного глагола) используется
в образовании продолженных и перфектных продолженных времён.
Продолженные времена: Он работает сейчас. Она будет писать письма в четыре часа.
Perfect continuous tenses: He has
een working since early morning.
By six o'clock, she will have been
writing letters for three hours.
Past Participle
The past participle (of the main
verb) is used in the formation of
Перфектные продолженные времена: Он уже работает с раннего утра.
К шести часам она будет писать
письма уже в течение трёх часов.
Причастие прошедшего времени
Причастие прошедшего времени
основного глагола) используется
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