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- •Preface
- •How to Use This Book
- •Reviewers
- •Acknowledgments
- •Brief Contents
- •Contents
- •Pathology in Brief
- •The Middle Ages (400–1400)
- •The Renaissance (1450–1600)
- •The 18th Century
- •The 19th Century
- •The 20th Century
- •Contemporary Massage Therapy
- •Swedish Modalities
- •Deep Tissue Modalities
- •Neuromuscular Modalities
- •Circulatory Enhancement Modalities
- •Energy Modalities
- •Oriental/Eastern Modalities
- •Structural and Postural Integration Modalities
- •Movement Modalities
- •Special Populations
- •Touch Physiology
- •Massage Research
- •Interpretation of Touch
- •Integrative Medicine Centers
- •Oncology Massage
- •History of the Spa Industry
- •Medical Spas
- •Spa Massage Education
- •Education
- •Body of Knowledge
- •Scope of Practice
- •Code of Ethics
- •Standards of Practice
- •Legal Regulations
- •Education
- •Competency
- •Limits of Practice
- •Accountability
- •Ethics for the Profession
- •Conduct
- •Business Practices
- •Legal Requirements and Ethical Responsibilities
- •Professional Associations
- •Physical Boundaries
- •Conceptual Boundaries
- •Client Relationships
- •Professional Relationships
- •Anatomy
- •Physiology
- •Cellular Functions
- •Components of the Cell
- •Tissues
- •Tissue Membranes
- •Integumentary System
- •Skeletal System
- •Muscular System
- •Nervous System
- •Cardiovascular System
- •Lymphatic System
- •Respiratory System
- •Digestive System
- •Urinary System
- •Endocrine System
- •Special Senses
- •Anatomical Terminology
- •Arthrology
- •Range of Motion
- •Myology: The Study of Muscles
- •Body Movements
- •Components of Good Body Mechanics
- •Body Awareness
- •Improper Body Mechanics
- •Pathology
- •Pharmacology
- •Abnormal Conditions of Cells and Tissues
- •Integumentary (Skin) Conditions
- •Skeletal System Conditions
- •Muscular System Conditions
- •Nervous System Conditions
- •Cardiovascular System Conditions
- •Lymphatic and Immune System Conditions
- •Respiratory System Conditions
- •Digestive System Conditions
- •Endocrine System Conditions
- •Reproductive System Conditions
- •Conditions of the Special Senses
- •Word Elements
- •Translating Terms
- •Spelling and Pronunciation
- •Effective Communication and Interviewing Skills
- •Documentation
- •Subjective Information
- •Objective Information
- •Activity and Analysis Information
- •Plan Information
- •Putting the SOAP Together
- •Case Studies
- •Wellness versus Therapeutic Massage Assessments
- •Fascia
- •Compensation Patterns
- •Assessment Documentation
- •Ideal Posture
- •Anterior Postural Assessment
- •Posterior Postural Assessment
- •Lateral Postural Assessment
- •Postural Deviations
- •Feet
- •Active Range of Motion
- •Passive Range of Motion
- •Assessment of Skin Temperature
- •Textures and Movement of Soft Tissues
- •Rhythms
- •Case Studies
- •Progressive Case Study 3: Kirsten Van Marter
- •Initial Session
- •Subsequent Sessions
- •Healing Time
- •Duration of Future Sessions
- •Frequency of Future Sessions
- •Length of Treatment
- •Techniques and Areas to Include or Avoid
- •Reevaluation
- •Considerations for Self-Care
- •Hydrotherapy
- •Stretches
- •Rest
- •Nutrition
- •Body Awareness
- •Ergonomics
- •Treatment Recommendations
- •Case Studies
- •Supine Position
- •Prone Position
- •Side-Lying (Laterally Recumbent) Position
- •Determining Client Positioning and Bolstering
- •Sheet Draping
- •Towel Draping
- •Communication for Client Positioning and Draping
- •Grounding
- •Centering
- •Resting Stroke
- •Compression
- •Effleurage
- •Petrissage
- •Tapotement
- •Friction
- •Vibration
- •Flow Sequences for Different Client Positions
- •Supine: Chest, Neck, and Head
- •Supine: Arm
- •Supine: Abdomen
- •Supine: Leg and Foot
- •Prone: Back
- •Prone: Leg and Foot
- •Closing Sequence
- •Chair Massage
- •Corporate Chair Accounts
- •Indications and Contraindications for Chair Massage
- •Healing: Phase I
- •Healing: Phase II
- •Healing: Phase III
- •Pain–Spasm Cycle
- •Fascia
- •Direction of Ease
- •Lengthening and Stretching
- •Arterial Enhancement
- •Venous Enhancement
- •Lymph Drainage
- •Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation Techniques
- •Myofascial Techniques
- •Trigger Point Techniques
- •Hydrotherapy
- •Effects of Hydrotherapy

Chapter 5 / Pathology and Pharmacology 251
In an uncomplicated pregnancy, massage is indicated with
specific considerations for each trimester.
More specific information regarding pregnancy is covered in the Special
Populations chapter.
Conditions of the Special Senses
The special senses include proprioception, vision, hearing,
smell, and taste. The abnormal conditions affecting the special senses do not typically have specific contraindications,
but the therapist may need to pay special attention to the
needs of these clients. Massage is generally safe for clients
who suffer from conditions of the special senses.
Clients who are deaf or blind will require special attention from the therapist to ensure a safe, relaxing, and comfortable massage experience. Clients with compromised
proprioception may need the therapist to offer a stabilizing
hand to keep from falling or injuring themselves, such as
when they are getting on and off the table or turning over
during a massage session.
2. Describe the following phases of pathological
conditions:
a. Acute
b. Subacute
c. Chronic
3. Identify at least five pathological conditions for
which massage is indicated.
4. Give five examples of local contraindications and
two examples of systemic contraindications.
5. Describe the pain–spasm cycle.
6. Define “trigger points” and identify at least three
contributing factors to their formation.
7. Explain the general adaptation syndrome (GAS)
mechanism as it relates to prolonged stress.
8. Describe the difference between sprain and strain.
9. Explain why a fever is contraindicated for massage
therapy.
10. Describe the benefits of massage therapy in the
subacute and chronic stages of a muscle spasm.
Having a fundamental understanding of pathology and
pharmacology is important for you as a massage therapist.
It will help you know when a massage as well as a certain
technique/s are indicated and contraindicated for a particular client within the context of any given session. Keeping
the rule, “when in doubt, don’t,” should always be in the
forefront of your mind as you make decisions regarding
each individual massage session. Additionally, consulting
the In Brief boxes in this chapter or a pathology text specific to massage will help you decide how to approach and
what techniques to include or exclude in a certain massage
session. Having this decision-making process will help best
serve your client’s unique massage needs.
1. Define the following terms and explain why it is
important for a massage therapist to know them:
a. Pathology
b. Etiology
c. Pharmacology
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252 INTRODUCTION TO MASSAGE THERAPY
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Theodosakis MD, Adderly B, Fox B. The Ar thritis Cure . New York: St. Martin’s
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Manual . Vol 2. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1992.
Utting, B. Lecture notes presented at: Utting School of Massage; 1994; Seattle, WA.
Versagi C. Step-by-Step Massage Therapy Protocols for Common Conditions .
Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2012.
Watkins J. Str ucture and Function of the Musculoskeletal System . Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics, 1999.
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Williams & Wilkins, 1998.
Werner R. A Massage Therapist’s Guide to Pathology . 3rd ed. Baltimore:
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2005.
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Williams & Wilkins, 2013.
Willis MC. Medical Terminology: The Language of Healthcare. Baltimore:
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1996.
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Objectives
6
Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be
able to:
■
Identify the three word elements
■
Translate at least five medical terms by using
the 5-step guideline
■
Describe at least four factors of effective
communication and interviewing skills
■
Define reflective listening
■
List at least five specific examples of nonverbal
communication
Key Terms
Activity and analysis information: The massage
activity and an analysis of the treatment session
documented on the SOAP note.
Con dentiality: Keeping information private unless the
client expressly permits you to share it.
HIPAA: Health Insurance Portability and Accountability
Act, enacted in 1996 to help employees and their
families obtain and transfer health insurance
coverage when their employment changes or is
terminated.
Massage treatment record: The document
containing input from clients, your objective
assessments of the clients’ condition, the
massage techniques you use, results of the
treatment session, and plans for future massage
treatment.
■
Give at least five reasons why a massage therapist
should document every massage session
■
Describe the information recorded in each
section of a SOAP note
■
List at least 15 questions to include in a client
history
■
Describe the difference between short- and
long-term goals
■
List at least 10 abbreviations commonly used in
massage treatment records
Objective information: Your visual, palpation, range-of-
motion, and gait assessments of the client’s body and
soft tissues documented on the SOAP note.
Plan information: The section of the SOAP note
including plans for future treatment and self-care
recommendations.
Privacy Rule (Standards for Privacy of Individually
Identi able Health Information): A modification
of the original HIPAA that legally protects
health-related information from being shared
without clients’ written permission by requiring all
healthcare practitioners to keep their clients’ health
information private and protected.
SOAP: An acronym for Subjective, Objective, Activity
and analysis, and Plan that refers to a format for
documentation.
253

254 INTRODUCTION TO MASSAGE THERAPY
Subjective information: Verbal and written information
clients share with you regarding their health documented in the SOAP note.
his chapter introduces key medical terminology used
in the field of massage therapy as well as pertinent ele-
T
ments of communication and documentation. Together,
they provide the foundation for communicating with clients
and other healthcare professionals. With practice and commitment, your mastery of these components will enhance
your professionalism and help you earn your due respect as
a healthcare practitioner.
Learning this language may be challenging, but it is very
possible if you commit to the learning process and are willing
to practice, practice, practice. It is worth the time and effort
because a working knowledge of medical terminology has
many benefits for the massage therapist. It will save time in
communication with clients and other healthcare professionals and in record keeping, and it can minimize confusion, help
maintain a professional image, and increase your knowledge
base. Knowledge is power!
Begin by learning the basic rules of the medical language, and then learn some individual words. Over time
and with practice, you will develop the confidence to use
the words comfortably when speaking about healthcare.
Treatment goal: A specific goal that is determined after
therapeutic massage treatment to clarify progress
toward overcoming functional limitations.
Most of the medical terms can be broken down into separate word elements that help simplify the meanings,
and numerous medical dictionaries are available to help
with spelling, pronunciation, and definitions. Having the
appropriate references available and knowing how to use
them is a more powerful tool than trying to memorize all
thewords.
Once you are familiar with the terminology, you can
start to develop your communication skills. Effective communication, interviewing skills, and documentation are vital
to the therapeutic process for both the massage therapist
and the client. While massage therapy evolves as part of
complementary medicine, documentation contributes to the
professional quality of your work.
Good documentation also helps you assess the client’s
condition to determine the appropriateness and type
of treatment, improvements, setbacks, treatment goals,
and clinical reasoning. More than just a written record,
documentation provides clues regarding the client’s health
history as well as a “road map” to effective initial and
session-to-session treatment.
Communication is a key element to a successful massage therapy business. For massage therapists, communication requires
a working knowledge of medical terminology because you
converse with many healthcare professionals. To be respected
and considered professional, you need to understand what
other health professionals are saying when they refer to a
treatment or a body part, and you need to be able to use the
same terms. In short, you must learn to speak a common language. Since modern medical terminology has its origins in
Greek and Latin words, the language is consistent across the
world, which makes it one of the most practical languages to
learn. Medical language continues to evolve, and terms are
added that are not based on either Greek or Latin. Some of
these terms are named for people who discover a body part
(Broca’s area of the brain) or disease (Alzheimer’s disease) or
who develop a procedure (Heimlich maneuver), test (Tinel’s
test), or device (Foley catheter).
Using these unfamiliar terms in class and practicing
them at home can raise your comfort level with your new
language. You can increase your learning by reinforcing it
with different combinations of processes. For instance, you
can practice the language by writing terms on paper and
spelling them aloud; by reading silently and saying the terms
aloud; by reading the definitions, closing your eyes, and
reciting the definitions; and by making up sentences that
use the terms. The more ways you practice, using your eyes,
ears, mouth, and hands, the more effective the learning.
Eventually, you will be able to communicate with clients,
keep professional records, and communicate with other
healthcare professionals comfortably and easily.
The learning process does not end when you are able to
use the language on a functional level. As long as you practice massage, you will need to communicate with clients
and other healthcare professionals, and you will not know
every medical term that exists. One of the most useful tools
for learning language is a dictionary that provides English
translations and definitions. Medical dictionaries, which provide definitions and pronunciations for scientific and medical terminology, are widely available and are an excellent
tool to have in the office. When clients and other healthcare

Chapter 6 / Communication and Documentation 255
professionals refer to conditions, diseases, anatomical parts,
or directional terms that you may not recognize or remember, you can use your medical dictionary to figure them out.
In addition to being a useful tool for you, a medical
dictionary can be an educational tool for your clients. All massage therapists should understand medical language and be
able to use it on a functional level, but the words and terminology each therapist uses with her clients is an individual choice.
Some clients expect their therapists to use medical terminology, but others are intimidated by it. Gauge your client’s comfort level and use language that keeps your client at ease but
still promotes professionalism. Sometimes primary care physicians use medical terms their patients do not understand, and
those patients may be uncomfortable asking the healthcare
professionals for explanations. People occasionally ask their
massage therapists for explanations or definitions of medical
words. Pulling out a medical dictionary and finding information with your client is an opportunity to learn and teach at
the same time. Demonstrating your interest in the client’s concerns while admitting that you do not know everything, but are
willing to learn, generates trust and respect from your client.
Diseases
• carcin(o) refers to cancer
• toxic(o) and tox(o) refer to poison
The derivation of some roots is not always so scientific.
For instance, the word “muscle” comes from the Latin word
meaning mouse, because the movement of a muscle under
the skin resembles the scampering movement of a mouse.
The coccyx is named after the cuckoo bird, because the
shape of the bone resembles the cuckoo’s bill.
Just as there are exceptions to every rule, there are
odd situations in which context and medical dictionaries
are especially helpful. For instance, some roots have two
different meanings, as illustrated below:
myel(o) refers to both
• spinal cord
• bone marrow
scler(o) refers to both
• hardening
• the white of the eye
cyst(i) and cyst(o) refer to both
Word Elements
The challenging process of learning this new language can be
simplified by breaking medical terms down into smaller parts.
Compound words are created by combining two or more
words, and the definition of the compound word generally is a
combination of the meanings of the two independent words.
For example, the word “headache” is a compound word made
up of the words “head” and “ache,” and the definition is a simple combination of those two words. Likewise, most medical
terms are created by combining two or three of the following
word elements: the root, the prefix, and the suffix.
Roots
The root is the core building block that provides the basic
meaning for the word. Typically, it refers to an organ, anatomical structure, body region, or disease. For example:
Organs
• hepat(o) refers to the liver
• cardi(o) refers to the heart
Anatomical structures
• brachi(o) refers to the arm
• cost(o) refers to the ribs
• my(o) refers to the muscle
Body regions
• abdomin(o) refers to the abdomen
• thorac(o) refers to the chest or thorax
• filled sac
• urinary bladder
There are also some instances in which two different
roots refer to the same term. Since Greek and Latin serve
as the basis for medical terms, sometimes each language
provides a root for the same term. For example, the Greek
root “nephr(o)” and the Latin root “ren” both refer to the
kidney. Table 6-1 lists commonly used roots, their meanings,
and examples of their usage.
Prefixes
Prefixes are the word elements that come before the root.
They change, further specify, or alter the meaning of the
root by referring to numbers, amounts, directions, positions,
changes, and comparisons. For example:
Numbers or amounts
• bi- two
• hyper- excessive or too much
• hypo- not enough or under
• poly- many or much
• semi- half or partial
• tri- three
Directions and positions
• ab- away from
• ad- toward
• ante- before

256 INTRODUCTION TO MASSAGE THERAPY
ROOT MEANING EXAMPLE DEFINITION
abdomin(o) abdomen rectus abdominus abdominal muscle along midline of body
adrenal(o), adren(o) adrenal adrenaline chemical produced by the adrenal gland
angi(o) vessel angioplasty reconstructive surgery on blood vessels
arteri(o), arter(o) artery arterial pertaining to the arteries
arthr(o) joint arthritis inflammation of a joint
brachi(o) arm brachialis muscle of the arm
bronch(i), bronch(o) bronchus bronchitis inflammation of the bronchi in the lungs
cardi(o) heart cardiology study of the heart
cephal(o) head cephalad toward the head
cerebr(o) cerebrum cerebrospinal fluid fluid that bathes the brain and spinal cord
cervic(o) neck cervical vertebrae spinal segments of the neck
chondr(o) cartilage chondritis inflammation of cartilage
cost(o) rib intercostals muscles between ribs
crani(o) skull cranial nerves major nerves in the skull
cyt(o) cell cytoplasm fluid within the cell
dent(i), dent(o) teeth dentist tooth and gum specialist
dermat(o), derm(o) skin dermatitis inflammation of the skin
fibr(o) fiber, fibrous fibrositis inflammation of fibrous connective tissue, muscles
gastr(o) stomach gastritis inflammation of the stomach
gynec(o), gyn(o) woman gynecology study of the female reproductive organs
hem(o), hemat(o) blood hematoma localized collection or clot of blood
hepat(o) liver hepatology study of the liver
hist(o) tissue histology study of cells and tissues
hydr(o) water hydrotherapy treatment using water internally and/or
externally
ili(o) ilium iliacus muscle that attaches to the ilium
laryng(o) larynx laryngitis inflammation of the larynx
my(o) muscle myositis inflammation of the muscle
myel(o) spinal cord,
myelin protective covering of nerves
bone marrow
nephr(o) kidney nephrology study of the kidney
neur(i), neur(o) nerve neurology study of the nervous system
continues on following page

Chapter 6 / Communication and Documentation 257
continued
ROOT MEANING EXAMPLE DEFINITION
ocul(o) eye oculomotor nerve nerve that controls eye movement
oss, oste(o) bone osteoporosis condition where bones become porous and fragile
ot(o) ear otitis inflammation in the ear
ped(i), ped(o) child pediatrics branch of medicine specializing in children
pneumat(o),
pneum(o)
pod(o) foot podiatrist foot specialist
psych(o) mind psychology study of the mind
pulm(o), pulmon(o) lung pulmonologist lung specialist
rhin(o) nose rhinoplasty reconstructive surgery of the nose
stern(o) chest, sternum flat bone between ribs in center of chest
therm(o) heat thermometer device for measuring heat
thorac(o) chest, thorax thoracic vertebrae vertebral segments of the thorax
thyr(o) thyroid hypothyroidism condition in which thyroid produces insufficient
toxic(o), tox(o) poison, toxin toxicology study of toxins, poisons
trache(o) trachea tracheostomy surgical opening in trachea
troph(o) growth hypertrophy excessive growth
ur(o), urin(o) urinary tract,
ven(o) vein venule a little vein
breathing,
respiration
urination
pneumonia inflammation in the lungs
hormones
urologist urinary system specialist
vertebr(o) vertebra, spine intervertebral disk special tissue disks between vertebrae
• endo- inside
• inter- between
• post- after or behind
• pre- before or in front of
• syn- together
• trans- across or through
Changes
• a- not or without
• anti- against
• contra- against
• dis- separation or absence
Comparisons
• infra- below
• iso- the same or equal to
• micro- small
• ortho- straight or correct
• pseudo- false
• re- again or back
Observe how prefixes modify roots in the following
examples:
• ab- ⫹ duct ⫽ abduct, which means movement away
from something

258 INTRODUCTION TO MASSAGE THERAPY
PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLE DEFINITION
a-, an- without, not, absent anaerobic without oxygen
ab- away from abduct move away from
ad- to, toward adduct move toward
ante- before anterior on the front side or in front of
anti- against antibody protein that fights against antigens and foreign substances
auto- self autoimmune immune system attacks own body tissues
bi- two biceps brachii arm muscle with two origins
bio- life biology study of living objects
circum- around circumduct to lead around, through full range of motion
contra- against contraindication situation in which treatment should be avoided
de- down, remove, loss degenerative condition of breakdown
dia- across, through diaphragm muscle whose origin crosses entire thorax
dis- apart, away from disease condition away from health
dys- difficult, painful dysfunction function that is abnormal or painful
epi- over, upon epidermis top layer of skin
ex- out of exhale release air out of lungs
extra- in addition, beyond extracellular area beyond or outside the cell
flex- bent flexion movement that reduces angle at a joint
hemi half hemisphere half of a sphere
hetero the other heterogeneous characteristic of having dissimilar constituents
homeo same homeostasis state of keeping everything the same or balanced
hyper above, extreme, excessive hypertonic excessive tone or concentration
hypo- under, below hypotonic insufficient tone or concentration
infra- below infraspinatus below the spine
inter- between intercostals muscles between the ribs
intra- within, inside intracellular area between the cells
leuk- white leukocyte white blood cell
macro- large macrophage large cell that destroys foreign substances
mal- abnormal, bad malfunction abnormal or bad function
medi- middle medial beginning or occurring in the middle
micr(o)- small microscope device that allows you to see small things
continues on following page

Chapter 6 / Communication and Documentation 259
continued
PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLE DEFINITION
mono- one, single monoarticular involving one joint
poly- many polyarticular involving many joints
post- after posterior the back or behind
pre-,
pro
quad- four quadriceps
re- again, back recur occur again
retro- backward retroactive applying to events that occurred in the past
semi- part semipermeable only allowing some things to permeate or move through
sub- under, below subcutaneous below the skin
super- above, in addition superficial on the surface or more toward the surface
supra- above, over suprahyoids muscles that are above the hyoid bone
syn- together synergistic working together
trans- across transverse
tri- three triceps brachii arm muscle with three origins
uni- one, single unilateral on one side
before, in front of precursor forerunner, or event that happened before
leg muscle with four origins
femoris
projection of vertebrae that points outward, across
process
the body
• ad- ⫹ duct ⫽ adduct, which means movement
toward something
• bi- ⫹ cycle ⫽ bicycle, or a cycle with two wheels
• hyper- ⫹ troph(o) ⫽ hypertrophy, which means
excessive growth
• hypo- ⫹ therm ⫽ hypothermia, which is a condition
of below normal temperature
• inter- ⫹ cost(o) ⫽ intercostal, or between the ribs
• trans- ⫹ derm(o) ⫽ transdermal, which means
through the skin
Table 6-2 lists commonly used prefixes, their definitions,
and examples.
Suffixes
Suffixes are word elements tacked on to the end of a root.
Because they can help determine whether the unknown
term is a noun or an adjective as well as describe how the
root is used, they tend to be the starting point for interpreting medical terms. Suffixes can indicate a specific condition
or a descriptive condition that refers to the root.
Noun indicators
• -algia characterized by pain in
• -esthesia a sensation of
• -iatry a medical specialty of
• -ism a condition of
• -ist a specialist of
• -itis an inflammation of
• -logy the study of
Descriptive indicators
• -ac pertaining to
• -al pertaining to
• -form like or resembling

260 INTRODUCTION TO MASSAGE THERAPY
• -oid resembling
• -ous pertaining to
• -es plural for -is
• -nges plural for -nx
Table 6-3 is a list of commonly used suffixes, their defi-
nitions, and examples of terms that include them.
SUFFIX MEANING EXAMPLE DEFINITION
-al pertaining to area skeletal pertaining to the skeleton
-algia pain, painful condition of neuralgia painful condition of the nerves
-ar pertaining to area muscular pertaining to the muscles
-ase enzyme lactase breaks down lactose
-cyte cell leukocyte white blood cell
Combining Vowels
Pronunciation can be awkward when two word elements
are combined that do not flow together well. When one
element ends with a consonant and the next begins with a
consonant, a combining vowel is placed between the two
to make the word easier to pronounce. In many of the
-ectomy removal of, excision hysterectomy surgical removal of uterus
-emia blood condition anemia low numbers of red blood cells
-genic causing, producing allergenic causing allergic reaction
-gram record electrocardiogram recording of the electrical activity of
theheart
-ic pertaining to optic pertaining to the eye
-itis inflammation of arthritis inflammation of the joint
-logy study of biology study of living things
-oid resembling fibroid resembling fibers
-oma tumor lipoma fatty tumor
-osis condition of lordosis condition of increased lordotic curve
-pathy disease or suffering sympathy suffering together
-phobia irrational fear of hydrophobia fear of water
-plasty surgical repair of arthroplasty surgical repair of a joint
-plegia paralysis paraplegia paralysis of two limbs
-rrhage excessive flow hemorrhage excessive loss of blood
-scope instrument for viewing microscope tool for viewing very small things
-stomy opening tracheostomy surgical opening in trachea
-tomy Incision laparotomy incision of the abdomen
-y characterized by bony characterized by bones
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