Практикум по теоретической грамматике английского языка. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие
.pdfThe main way in which one unit becomes connected to another is by adding an RST relation to the diagram. An example in Figure 1 is represented by the arrow from unit 2 to a span labelled 3–4. A span of text is at each end of an arrow, and the arrow is labelled with the name of a relation, in this case Condition. The arrowhead points to a span called the nucleus (units 3–4) and the arrow points away from another span called the satellite (unit 2). All units are also spans, and spans may be composed of more than one unit. The abstract representations in this type of diagrams are referred to as schemas.
RST relations are defined in terms of four fields: 1) Constraints on the nucleus; 2) Constraints on the satellite; 3) Constraints on the combination of nucleus and satellite; and 4) Effect (achieved on the text receiver). To specify each field for any instance of a particular relation, the analyst must make plausibility judgments, based on context and the intentions of the writer. All relations are defined in terms of the four fields.
Текстовый фрагмент № 6
So much remains a mystery about the duplicitous and racy New York life of Anna Chapman, so let this be heard loud and clear: Do svidanya, Anya. My uzhe skuchayem po tebe.
On Thursday, Ms. Chapman made what is very likely her last public appearance in the city that she bewitched from behind bars, pleading guilty to conspiring to act as an unregistered agent of a foreign government. She was never charged, down the street in State Supreme Court, with burglary, for stealing the hearts of countless New Yorkers, or for conspiring to commit copyright infringement by inspiring many headline puns playing off the 1957 Ian Fleming title, “From Russia, With Love.”
Who will be the last New Yorker to spend a moment with our Anna? The F.B.I agent buckling her into her airplane seat for her one-way journey out of here? A flight attendant pouring her a Stolichnaya neat somewhere over the Atlantic? Can deported spies drink on airplanes? If so, can we have a picture, please?
No one has accused Ms. Chapman of being a particularly good spy. She was not charged with sending anything of use back to her handlers – those lucky devils – in Moscow. But she was, with further apologies to Mr. Fleming, the spy who loved us, before she left us.
Текстовый фрагмент № 7
One of the fundamental principles governing identity is that of substitu- tivity-or, as it might well be called, that of indiscernibility of identical.
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It provides that, given a true statement of identity, one of its two terms may be substituted for the other in any true statement and the result will be true. It is easy to find cases contrary to this principle. For example, the statements: (1) Giorgione = Barbarelli, (2) Giorgione was so-called because of his size are true; however, replacement of the name ‘Giorgione’ by the name ‘Barbarelli’ turns (2) into the falsehood: Barbarelli was so-called because of his size. Furthermore, the statements: (3) Cicero = Tully, (4) ‘Cicero’ contains six letters are true, but replacement of the first name by the second turns (4) false. Yet the basis of the principle of substitutivity appears quite solid; whatever can be said about the person Cicero (or Giorgione) should be equally true of the person Tully (or Barbarelli), this being the same person. In the case of (4), this paradox resolves itself immediately. The fact is that (4) is not a statement about the person Cicero, but simply about the word ‘Cicero’. The principle of substitutivity should not be extended to contexts in which the name to be supplanted occurs without referring simply to the object. Failure of substitutivity reveals merely that the occurrence to be supplanted is not purely referential,’ that is, that the statement depends not only on the object but on the form of the name.
Текстовый фрагмент № 8
All you need is a wormhole, the Large Hadron Collider or a rocket that goes really, really fast
Hello. My name is Stephen Hawking. Physicist, cosmologist and something of a dreamer. Although I cannot move and I have to speak through a computer, in my mind I am free. Free to explore the universe and ask the big questions, such as: is time travel possible? Can we open a portal to the past or find a shortcut to the future? Can we ultimately use the laws of nature to become masters of time itself? Time travel was once considered scientific heresy. I used to avoid talking about it for fear of being labelled a crank. But these days I'm not so cautious. In fact, I'm more like the people who built Stonehenge. I'm obsessed by time. If I had a time machine I'd visit Marilyn Monroe in her prime or drop in on Galileo as he turned his telescope to the heavens. Perhaps I'd even travel to the end of the universe to find out how our whole cosmic story ends. To see how this might be possible, we need to look at time as physicists do – at the fourth dimension. It's not as hard as it sounds. Every attentive schoolchild knows that all physical objects, even me in my chair, exist in three dimensions. Everything has a width and a height and a length. But there is another kind of length, a length in time. While a human may survive for 80 years, the stones at Stone-
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henge, for instance, have stood around for thousands of years. And the solar system will last for billions of years. Everything has a length in time as well as space. Travelling in time means travelling through this fourth dimension. To see what that means, let's imagine we're doing a bit of normal, everyday car travel. Drive in a straight line and you're travelling in one dimension. Turn right or left and you add the second dimension.
Текстовый фрагмент № 9
He gave the wind its weight. Job 28:25.
In the last chapter we discussed some of the features of wind turbines synchronized with the electrical grid. There are a number of advantages to synchronized operation in that frequency and voltage are controlled by the utility, reactive power for induction generators is available, starting power for Darrieus turbines is available, and storage requirements are minimal. These advantages would indicate that most of the wind generated electricity in the United States will be produced in synchronism with the utility grid. Historically, however, most wind electric generators have been attached to asynchronous loads. The most common load, especially before about 1950, has been a bank of batteries which in turn supply power to household appliances. Other loads include remote communication equipment, cathodic protection for buried pipelines, and direct space heating or domestic hot water heating applications. These wind electric generators have been small in size, usually less than 5 kW, and have usually been located where utility power has not been available. We can expect the use of asynchronous electricity to continue, and perhaps even to grow, for a number of reasons. The use of wind power at remote communication sites for charging batteries can be expected to increase as less expensive, more reliable wind turbines are developed. Space heating and domestic hot water heating are natural applications where propane or oil are now being used. Existing fossil fueled equipment can be used as backup for the wind generated energy.
Текстовый фрагмент № 10
Societies through the ages have always been fascinated with our origins. In the last few years, scientists have begun to answer some of the most fundamental questions about the origin and early evolution of the universe. This book presents a fresh, engaging and highly readable introduction to these ideas. Using novel, down-to-earth analogies, author James Lidsey steers us deftly on a journey to the cutting edge of cosmology. Step-by-step, we travel back in time through Lidsey’s book until we arrive at the very origin of the universe. There we look at the fascinating ideas scientists are
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currently developing to explain what happened in the first billion, billion, billion, billionth of a second of the universe’s existence – the ‘inflationary’ epoch. Along the way, we are given lucid accounts of many fascinating topics in theoretical cosmology, including the latest ideas on superstrings, parallel universes, and the ultimate fate of our universe. We also discover how the world of the very small (described by the physics of elementary particles) and the world of the very large (described by cosmology) are inextricably linked by events which wove them together in the first few moments of the universe’s history. Lucid analogies, clear and concise prose and straightforward language make this book a delight to read. It makes accessible to the general reader some of the most profound and complex ideas about the origin of our universe currently vexing the minds of the world’s best scientists.
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3. ТЕКСТОВЫЕ ПРИМИТИВЫ
Любой знак состоит из трех сторон: семантика, синтактика и прагматика. Так, Ю.С. Степанов называет данные стороны знака измерениями, которые формируют трехмерное пространство языка [4].
3.1. СИНТАКТИЧЕСКОЕ ИЗМЕРЕНИЕ ТЕКСТА
Двумя основными элементами синтактических макроструктур являются ядро и сателлит. Соответственно, я выделяю следующие основные синтактические макроструктуры:
1. Безъядерная синтактическая макроструктура.
В текстах, принадлежащих к данной синтактической макроструктуре, отсутствует ядерный компонент.
2. Одноядерные синтактические макроструктуры.
Тексты данных синтактических макроструктур строятся вокруг одного ядра.
3. Многоядерные синтактические макроструктуры.
Многоядерные синтактические макроструктуры представляют собой комбинацию одноядерных структур. Количество одноядерных синтактических макроструктур в многоядерной макроструктуре теоретически может быть бесконечно, ограничения накладываются семантическими компонентами конкретного текста.
3.2. ПРАГМАТИЧЕСКОЕ ИЗМЕРЕНИЕ ТЕКСТА
Так как прагматика заключается в отношении носителя языка к знакам, то в основе разделения базовых прагматических макроструктур должен лежать аллокутивный критерий. Таким образом, можно выделить следующие базовые прагматические макроструктуры:
1. Недостаток или отсутствие информации/действия.
В текстах, принадлежащих к данным прагматическим макроструктурам, коммуниканты обладают разной релевантной информативной базой, т. е. либо адресант обладает большей информацией, чем адре-
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сат, либо адресат обладает большей релевантной информацией, чем
адресант.
2. Несоответствие информации/действия.
В текстах анализируемого вида прагматических макроструктур коммуниканты обладают разной информацией по определенной теме. Соответственно, цель коммуникантов выработать общую релевантную информативную базу или же определить возможность существования обеих/всех баз одновременно.
3. Фатические.
Тексты фатических макроструктур направлены на выражение психологического состояния адресанта относительно адресанта, адресата, других, адресанта и адресата, адресанта и других, адресата и других, всех участников коммуникации.
3.3. СЕМАНТИЧЕСКОЕ ИЗМЕРЕНИЕ ТЕКСТА
На мой взгляд, семантическое измерение текста оптимально представить в виде своеобразной семантической сети. Я выделил и градуировал по степени релевантности следующие узлы семантической сети, которые находят отражение в текстах:
1. Тематика текста.
Первым делом адресант выбирает определенную тематику, которая будет реализована в конкретной коммуникативной ситуации. Посчитать общее количество возможных тем представляется задачей крайне сложной.
2. Перформативность – неперформативность текста.
Под перформативом понимается речевой акт эквивалентный действию [3].Соответственно, перформативные тексты представляют собой действия. Неперформативные тексты передают определенную информацию или призывают к конкретным действиям.
3. Фиксированный – нефиксированный порядок логико-семантичес- ких компонентов.
Логико-семантические компоненты текста могут иметь либо фиксированный порядок, т. е. не могут меняться местами с другими логи- ко-семантическими компонентами, либо нефиксированный порядок, т. е. могут меняться местами с другими логико-семантическими компонентами.
4. Гомогенность – гетерогенность логико-семантических компонентов.
В гомогенных текстах во всех компонентах реализуется одинаковое количество узлов семантической сети, и все они выражены при-
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мерно в равной степени. Что касается гетерогенных компонентов, то существует три вида подобных компонентов:
а. Слабо гетерогенные логико-семантические компоненты. б. Средне гетерогенные логико-семантические компоненты. в. Сильно гетерогенные логико-семантические компоненты.
5. Экспрессивность – неэкспрессивность информации.
Сама информация в тексте может вызывать у адресата различные психологические состояния. Так, комедия должна вызывать состояние радости у человека, в то время как трагедия – состояние грусти. Соответственно, экспрессивные тексты можно разделить на два подвида:
а. Тексты положительной экспрессии, т.е. те тексты, которые вызывают положительное психологическое состояние адресата.
б. Тексты отрицательной экспрессии, т.е. те тексты, которые вызывают отрицательное психологическое состояние адресата.
6. Уверенность – неуверенность адресанта в информации/действие.
Так, адресант может быть либо уверен, либо неуверен в том, что информация истинна или ложна, или в том, что действие нужно или не нужно осуществлять.
7. Реальность – гипотетичность – нереальность информации/ действия.
Так, можно составлять коммуникацию на основе явлений, действий и т. д., которые:
а) реально существуют или реально выполнимы, б) гипотетически существуют или гипотетически выполнимы, в) не существуют или невыполнимы.
8. Эмоциональность – неэмоциональность.
Текст может либо быть эмоционально окрашенным, либо не передавать какое-либо эмоциональное состояние вообще. При этом эмоциональность может быть либо негативной (например, злость, обида и т.д.), либо позитивной (например, восхищение, радость и т. д.), либо нейтральной (например, удивление).
9. Известность – неизвестность.
Информация может быть новой для адресата или уже известной ему. При этом адресант может:
а) не знать, что информация известна адресату, б) знать, что информация известна адресату.
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Упражнение. Проанализируйте прагматические,
семантические и синтактические характеристики следующих текстовых фрагментов.
Текстовый фрагмент № 1
Every major league player is deeded real estate in the book of baseball. Some may be granted only one word, others a paragraph. And then there is Derek Jeter, who is closing out, in a masterly way, one of the great chapters in baseball’s history.
It is rare when you can craft both the beginning and end of your entry and also guide the pen in between. The serendipity that marks a life in the game can add pages of unforeseen horror (or romance) to your story. The wayward hand of the larger forces in baseball can act like a toddler’s first dance with a crayon. Wantonly scribbling out previous work, recklessly writing outside the lines without control.
But a major league player has a magic pen, too. In Jeter’s letter to the fans, he expressed a common player belief that this game was a dream, the domain of the supernatural and unexplainable, enduring against all odds. So you tap your dreams, and accept that every once in a while they will be interrupted by a trip to the disabled list or a subpar season. Yet Jeter lived the daily dream of being an exceptional player with an exceptional organization behind him, and he became one of the best of baseball’s dream.
Jeter has built a career on grit and hustle, on an inside-out swing and a jump throw to first from deep in the hole. The ice water in his veins enabled him to expect victory in the most dire circumstances, and doubled as an antidote to the sometimes venomous scrutiny that comes with playing in New York. Jeter has always been daring and fearless, and it takes a lot of courage to pre-empt the inevitable physical decline of a professional baseball player and do what he did this week: declare a self-imposed deadline and submit, finally, to baseball’s history book. The game’s actuarial tables don’t generally put a 40-year-old shortstop in the starting lineup on Opening Day for any contender, so he already enters this season as an anomaly.
Yet no player can completely control the ending. Happenstance is one of baseball’s great gifts and curses. When you are playing 162 games in a season, nearly every single day, anything can happen.
Jeter never gave up until he knew beyond a shadow of a doubt that it was over, and even then, he winked. He is pragmatic and knows the risk of entering a season at this stage in his career without a plan: it’s an invitation
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to chaos. There would be the inevitable questions about a slow bat or an unhealed ankle, the distractions and self-doubts that come with a slump at 40 versus a slump at 25.
In many ways, Jeter’s declaration not only provided parameters for himself, it spared his teammates and his manager. They will not have to explain his future struggles, they will not have to consider joining a conversation that suggests he think about retirement.
Truth is, he does not know how this year will unfold. We can imagine the impossible – like a standing ovation in his honor at Fenway Park or a game-winning home run in Game 7 of the World Series – because all along he played for something bigger than rivalry and organizational pride. Those priorities earn the respect of anyone who loves the game and cares about its future. Jeter transcended tried-and-true constructs, and it would be fitting if his transition from the game were transcendent.
But even though Jeter’s baseball legacy will be there for all time, the world changes, and how that legacy is interpreted will change with it. This is what is so hard. Even if we end on our terms, we still can’t know how we will be remembered.
We hope there is something immutable about our effort. That we are somehow timeless and forever. But we have to wait and see, and clarity still might not come in our lifetime. As Jeter stated in his letter to his fans, “Now it is time for a new chapter. I have new dreams and aspirations, and I want new challenges.”
His greatest challenge may be those first steps without the pinstripes, without the packed stadium, without the opponent 60 feet 6 inches away. It might arise while he’s sitting on the couch, opening up baseball’s history and seeing his entry complete, with nothing more to be added.
But the good news, as baseball turns to the next chapter, is that it’s a game that looks forward and backward equally, and something tells me that Derek Jeter will be that rarity who will find a way to travel through time and stand in both the past and in the future.
Текстовый фрагмент № 2
A rookie police officer was out for his first ride with an experienced partner. A call came in telling them to disperse some people who were loitering. The officers drove to the street and observed a small crowd standing on a corner. The rookie rolled down his window and said, ''Let's get off the corner people''. A few glances, but no one moved, so he barked again, ''Let's get off that corner... NOW!'' Intimidated, the group of people began to
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leave, casting puzzled stares in his direction. Proud of his first official act, the young policeman turned to his partner and asked, ''Well, how did I do?'' ''Pretty good'', chuckled the vet, ''especially since this is a bus stop''.
Текстовый фрагмент № 3
In your memoir, you discuss how indie rock, despite its anticorporate rhetoric, can be a little stifling and self-censoring. You also come clean about liking Pearl Jam. What’s the least hip thing you’re a fan of now?
‘‘The Bachelor.’’ I’m such a big fan of ‘‘The Bachelor.’’ And I really like Phil Collins and Dan Fogelberg. Do you even know who that is?
I do know who that is. O.K., good. That sounded sort of snobby. I have really never aligned myself with hipsterdom or coolness. Curiosity is what keeps me open to a sense of hope. It staves off negativity. I want to have a sense of openness and optimism, even if that means being open to things that are potentially dark.
‘‘The Bachelor’’ can be pretty dark. There is so much sadness.
You wrote that in college you realized you ‘‘wanted to be someone who has that power to drift in and out of people’s imaginations, who could be bigger than mere human form, a surface upon which others could project their longings.’’ It’s rare to see someone aligned with indie rock be so frank about seeking fame. I don’t want to be famous. I wanted to be that solidity for someone else, in the same way that when I was young, I was able to project my desires and insecurities and uncertainties and need for belonging onto someone else.
You worked for a while as a substitute teacher. Was it strange being an authority figure? I was only 24. People thought I was a student, so I had to start actually purchasing heels, which I had never worn. I just thought, Well, this is what teachers wear.
Did you do anything subversive as a substitute? Sometimes I would find out what the kids were studying and try to do my own lesson plan. But that got me in trouble, so I had to go back to just showing them films.
You do comedy now, but that wasn’t your focus during the riot grrrl days. Were there times during that period when you saw that you had material for comedy but maybe you couldn’t or wouldn’t use it? My bandmate Corin’s band before Sleater-Kinney had a male drummer. We played this basement show that was an all-women show – meaning only women in the bands and the audience – and for some reason no one told anyone that we had a guy in our band, C.J. He felt like such a pariah. So when he got behind the drum kit, he wore a ski mask, which to me made him look sinister. I was like: What are we achieving here?
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