Иностранный язык (английский язык). Сборник упражнений по переводу и разговорной речи. Учебное пособие
.pdfNowadays MS is one of the best-known and richest companies in the world.
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Computer and its parts
If you use a desktop computer, you might already know that there isn’t any single part called the «computer.» A computer is really a system of many parts working together. The physical parts, which you can see and touch, are collectively called hardware. (Software, on the other hand, refers to the instructions, or programs, that tell the hardware what to do.)
The following scheme shows the most common hardware in a desktop computer system. A laptop computer has similar parts but combines them into a single, notebook-sized package.
The main parts of a computer are as follows: a monitor, a system unit, a mouse (can be replaced by a touchpad system), speakers, and a keyboard
The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it’s a rectangular box placed on or underneath your desk. Inside this box there are many electronic components that process information. The most important of these components is the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor, which acts as the «brain» of your computer. Another component is random access memory (RAM), which temporarily stores information that the CPU uses while the computer is on. The information stored in RAM is erased when the computer is turned off.
Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The cables plug into specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit. Hardware that is not part of the system unit is sometimes called a peripheral device or device.
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Facebook is a social networking website and service where users can post comments, share photographs and links to news or other interesting content on the Web, play games, chat live, and even stream live video. Shared content can be made publicly accessible, or it can be shared only among a select group of friends or family, or with a single person.
Facebook began in February of 2004 as a school-based social network at Harvard University. It was created by Mark Zuckerberg along with Edward Saverin, both students at the college.
Then called «thefacebook.com,» the site was an instant hit. Now, six years later, the site has become one of the biggest web sites in the world, visited by 400 million people a month.
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The controversy surrounding Facebook began quickly. A week after he launched the site in 2004, Mark was accused by three Harvard seniors of having stolen the idea from them.
This allegation soon bloomed into a full-fledged lawsuit, as a competing company founded by the Harvard seniors sued Mark and Facebook for theft and fraud, starting a legal odyssey that continues to this day.
One of the reasons credited for the rapid growth and popularity of Facebook was its exclusivity. Originally, to join Facebook you had to have an email address at one of the schools in the network. It soon expanded beyond Harvard to other colleges in the Boston area, and then to Ivy League schools. Very soon it involved anyone who had an e-mail address all over the world.
Facebook’s success can be attributed to its ability to appeal to both people and businesses, its developer’s network that turned Facebook into a thriving platform and Facebook Connect’s ability to interact with sites around the web by providing a single login that works across multiple sites.
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The first programmer
Ada Lovelace, born as Augusta Ada Byron, was the only legitimate child of the famous poet Lord George Gordon Byron. In her notes, Ada described how codes could be created for the device to handle letters and symbols along with numbers. She also theorized a method for the engine to repeat a series of instructions, a process known as looping that computer programs use today. Ada also offered up other forward-thinking concepts in the article. For her work, Ada is often considered to be the first computer programmer.
Ada had an unusual upbringing for an aristocratic girl in the mid-1800s. At her mother’s insistence, tutors taught her mathematics and science. Around the age of 17, Ada met Charles Babbage, a mathematician and inventor. The pair became friends, and the much older Babbage served as a mentor to Ada. Through Babbage, Ada began studying advanced mathematics with University of London.
Ada was fascinated by Babbage’s ideas. Known as the father of the computer, he invented the difference engine, which was meant to perform mathematical calculations.
In her notes, Ada described how codes could be created for the device to handle letters and symbols along with numbers. She also theorized a method for the engine to repeat a series of instructions, a process known as looping that computer programs use today. Ada also offered up other forward-thinking
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concepts in the article. For her work, Ada is often considered to be the first computer programmer.
Lovelace died of cancer in 1852, when she was only 36. More than 150 years later, we remember her contributions to science and engineering in the celebration of Ada Lovelace Day on October 13. First celebrated in 2009, it is a day set aside to learn about women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
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Hewlett Packard history
Hewlett Packard company (HP) is an American multinational Information Technology organization that provides hardware and software services to small, medium and large sized businesses across industries. It also has an extensive range of IT products to offer.
The organization was founded by William “Bill” Redington Hewlett and Dave Packard in 1939. It was started in a car garage in Palo Alto, California, where today it is headquartered. The first product of HP was an audio oscillator. Today, HP specializes in developing and manufacturing PCs, networking hardware, computer storage and delivering services. HP’s product line includes PCs, servers, networking products, storage devices, software, printers and imaging products. There are more than 3,17,500 employees in the organization globally.
In 1993, Dave Packard retired as the Chairman and Lew Platt was elected to replace him. In 1993, HP introduced the Omni book 300, a supportable PC with extended battery life. In 1994, HP introduced the world’s brightest LED. In 1994, the first HP’s official personal printer-fax-copier was introduced. 2001 witnessed the creation of HP services to provide consulting and outsourcing support and solutions deployment.
In 2002, HP and Compaq merged and subsequently the company’s stock symbol changed to HPQ.
The CEO of HP right now is Meg Whitman, an alumnus of Princeton University and Harvard Business School. She was Vice President of Strategic Planning for the Walt Disney Company during most of the 1980s. She was also with eBay for a decade, from 1998–2008.
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Operating systems
When computers were first introduced in the 1940’s and 50’s, every programe written had to provide instructions that told the computer how to use devices such as the printer, how to store information on a disk, as well as
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how to perform several other tasks not necessarily related to the programme. The additional programme instructions for working with hardware devices were very complex and time-consuming. Programmers soon realized it would be smarter to develop one programme that could control the computer’s hardware, which others programmes could have used when they needed it. They created the first operating system. Today, operating systems control and manage the use of hardware devices such as the printer or mouse. They also provide disk management by letting you store information in files. The operating system also lets you run programmes such as the basic word processor. Lastly, the operating system provides several of its own commands that help you to use the computer.
DOS is the most commonly used PC operating system. DOS is an abbreviation for disk operating system. DOS was developed by a company named Microsoft. MS-DOS is an abbreviation for «Microsoft DOS». When IBM first released the IBM PC in 1981, IBM licensed DOS from Microsoft for use on the PC and called it PC-DOS. From the users perspective, PC-DOS and MS-DOS are the same, each providing the same capabilities and commands.
The version of DOS release in 1981 was 1.0. Over the past decade, DOS has undergone several changes. Each time the DOS developers release a new version, they increase the version number.
Windows NT (new technology) is an operating system developed by Microsoft. NT is an enhanced version of the popular Microsoft Windows 3.0, 3.1 programmes. NT requires a 386 processor or greater and 8 Mb of RAM. For the best NT performance, you have to use a 486 processor with about 16 Mb or higher. Unlike the Windows, which runs on top of DOS, Windows NT is an operating system itself. However, NT is DOS compatible. The advantage of using NT over Windows is that NT makes better use of the PC’s memory management capabilities.
OS/2 is a PC operating system created by IBM. Like NT, OS/2 is DOS compatible and provides a graphical user interface that lets you run programmes with a click of a mouse. Also like NT, OS/2 performs best when you are using a powerful system. Many IBM-based PCs are shipped with OS/2 preinstalled.
UNIX is a multi-user operating system that allows multiple users to access the system. Traditionally, UNIX was run on a larger mini computers to which users accessed the systems using terminals and not PC’s. UNIX allowed each user to simultaneously run the programmes they desired. Unlike NT and OS/2, UNIX is not DOS compatible. Most users would not purchase UNIX for their own use.
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Windows 95 & 98, are still the most popular user-oriented operating systems with a friendly interface and multitasking capabilities. The usage of Windows95 and its enhanced version Windows 98 is so simple that even little kids learn how to use it very quickly. Windows 95 and 98 are DOS compatible.
The new series of operating system by Microsoft are Windows Millenium, Windows 2000 and Windows XP. Each of these new products is addressed to the both corporate and private clients. New strategy of the Microsoft is aimed at creating «a one for all» product, which will be useful for both the beginners and advanced users.
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Internet
Millions of people around the world use the Internet to search for and retrieve information on all sorts of topics in a wide variety of areas including the arts, business, government, humanities, news, politics and recreation. People communicate through electronic mail (e-mail), discussion groups, chat channels and other means of informational exchange. They share information and make commercial and business transactions. All this activity is possible because tens of thousands of networks are connected to the Internet and exchange information in the same basic ways.
The World Wide Web (WWW) is a part of the Internet. But it’s not a collection of networks. Rather, it is information that is connected or linked together like a web. You access this information through one interface or tool called a Web browser. The number of resources and services that are part of the World Wide Web is growing extremely fast. In 1996 there were more than 20 million users of the WWW, and more than half the information that is transferred across the Internet is accessed through the WWW. By using a computer terminal (hardware) connected to a network that is a part of the Internet, and by using a programme (software) to browse or retrieve information that is a part of the World Wide Web, the people connected to the Internet and World Wide Web through the local providers have access to a variety of information. Each browser provides a graphical interface. You move from place to place, from site to site on the Web by using a mouse to click on a portion of text, icon or region of a map. These items are called hyperlinks or links. Each link you select represents a document, an image, a video clip or an audio file somewhere on the Internet. The user doesn’t need to know where it is, the browser follows the link.
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All sorts of things are available on the WWW. One can use Internet for recreational purposes. Many TV and radio stations broadcast live on the WWW. Essentially, if something can be put into digital format and stored in a computer, then it’s available on the WWW. You can even visit museums, gardens and cities throughout the world, learn foreign languages and meet new friends. And, of course, you can play computer games through WWW, competing with partners from other countries and continents.
Just a little bit of exploring the World Wide Web will show you what a lot of use and fun it is.
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Computer crime
Computer crime is broadly defined as unauthorized access to, use of, alteration of, or taking of another person’s computer systems or files. This activity is illegal even if the person does not intend to do any harm.
Corporate and government computer systems are the most popular targets of computer crime. Some people who work for corporations or the government may try to sell information to business rivals or foreign governments. Others may use computers to embezzle money.
Most of those who gain unauthorized access to computer systems are “hackers”. Hackers, sometimes high-school or college-age persons, intentionally try to break into computer systems. Once hackers enter a system, they usually look at confidential or classified files. Occasionally, a hacker may copy a file and distribute it Hackers annually cause an estimated $1 billion worth of damage to computer files. There is disagreement on how hackers should be punished. Many persons feel that hackers are dangerous and should receive jail terms and pay large fines like other white-collar criminals. Others argue that hackers break into systems as a hobby, do not intend any harm, and can be rehabilitated.
Some hackers release “viruses” or “worms” into computer systems. Viruses are computer programs designed to play practical jokes or destroy data and damage computer files. Worms are designed to slow down computer systems but not to destroy data. Both viruses and worms are prohibited by computer crime laws.
The federal government (USA) has also been carefully watching computer bulletin board systems. Bulletin boards allow users to exchange computer files and messages using computers and modems. Some of these bulletin boards make commercial software programs available to users. However, making the programs available without the publisher’s permission is illegal.
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Another type of computer crime occurs when someone illegally copies software he or she has purchased. Software companies lose over $2 billion each year to illegal copying. A person who opens a software package is agreeing to use the software on one computer only. This person is allowed to make copies of the software only to use as a backup. Placing software on more than one computer without the publisher’s permission is illegal and violates federal copyright laws. The violator is subject to a possible jail term and a fine of up to $250,000. Violators can include individuals, businesses, and schools.
Despite the attention given to computer crimes, most probably go unreported. Many companies are reluctant to publicize their vulnerability to computer criminals. Also, many are discouraged by the resources and time needed to prosecute individuals.
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Types of computers
ThetypesofcomputersrangefromtheHybridtotheAnalogtypes.Thecomputers you come across in the daily course of your day range from laptops, palmtops and towers,todesktopcomputers,tonameafew.Buttheveryword“computers”reminds one of the desktop computers used in offices or homes. Different categories of computers have been devised in keeping with our varied needs.
According to the classification based on operational principle the types of computers: analog and hybrid.
The Analog computer is almost an extinct type of computer these days. It is different from a digital computer in respect that it can perform numerous mathematical operations simultaneously. It is also unique in terms of operation as it utilizes continuous variables for the purpose of mathematical computation. It utilizes mechanical, hydraulic, or electrical energy or operation.
Hybrid computers are a combination of both Analog and Digital computers. The Digital computers which work on the principle of binary digit system of “0” and “1” can give very precise results. But the problem is that they are too slow and incapable of large scale mathematical operation. In the hybrid types of computers the Digital counterparts convert the analog signals to perform Robotics and Process control. Apart from this, computers are also categorized on the basis of physical structures and the purpose of their use. Based on capacity, speed and reliability they can be divided into three categories of computers:
1. The Mainframe Computer – these are computers used by large organizations like meteorological surveys and statistical institutes for performing
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bulk mathematical computations. They are core computers which are used for desktop functions of over one hundred people simultaneously.
2.The Microcomputer – these are the most frequently used computers better known by the name of “personal computers”. This is type of computer meant for public use. Other than Desktop Computer the choice ranges as follows:
A desktop is a PC that is not designed for portability. The expectation with desktop systems is that you will set the computer up in a permanent location. Most desktops offer more power, storage and versatility for less cost than their portable brethren.
Laptops, also called notebooks, are portable computers that integrate the display, keyboard, a pointing device or trackball, processor, memory and hard drive all in a battery-operated package slightly larger than an average hardcover book.
Palmtops, more commonly known as Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), are tightly integrated computers that often use flash memory instead of a hard drive for storage. These computers usually do not have keyboards but rely on touchscreen technology for user input. Palmtops are typically smaller than a paperback novel, very lightweight with a reasonable battery life. A slightly larger and heavier version on the palmtop is the handheld computer.
A tablet PC is a notebook or slate-shaped mobile computer, first introduced by Pen Computing in the early 90s with their PenGo Tablet Computer and popularized by Microsoft. Its touchscreen or graphics tablet/screen hybrid technology allows the user to operate the computer with a stylus or digital pen, or a fingertip, instead of a keyboard or mouse. The form factor offers a more mobile way to interact with a computer. Tablet PCs are often used where normal notebook are impractical or unwieldy, or do not provide the needed functionality.
A workstation is a desktop computer that has a more powerful processor, additional memory and enhanced capabilities for performing a special group of task, such as 3D Graphics or game development.
3.The Mini computer – Mini computers like the mainframe computers are used by business organization. The difference being that it can support the simultaneous working of up to 100 users and is usually maintained in business organizations for the maintenance of accounts and finances.
Yet another category of computer is the Super Computers. It is somewhat similar to mainframe computers and is used in economic forecasts and engineering designs. Today life without computers is inconceivable. Usage of different types of computers has made life both smooth and fast paced.
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Hardware
What is hardware? Webster’s dictionary gives us the following definition of the hardware – the mechanical, magnetic, electronic, and electrical devices composing a computer system.
Computer hardware can be divided into four categories.
Input hardware
The purpose of the input hardware is to collect data and convert it into a form suitable for computer processing. The most common input device is a keyboard. It looks very much like a typewriter. The mouse is a hand held device connected to the computer by small cable. As the mouse is rolled across the mouse pad, the cursor moves across the screen. When the cursor reaches the desired location, the user usually pushes a button on the mouse once or twice to signal a menu selection or a command to the computer.
The light pen uses a light sensitive photoelectric cell to signal screen position to the computer. Another type of input hardware is optic-electronic scanner that is used to input graphics as well as typeset characters. Microphone and digital camera can be also used to input data into the computer.
Processing hardware
The purpose of processing hardware is retrieve, interpret and direct the execution of software instructions provided to the computer. The most common components of processing hardware are the Central Processing Unit and main memory.
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer. It reads and interprets software instructions and coordinate of main memory it can use effectively. With a well designed CPU in your computer, you can perform highly sophisticated tasks in a very short time.
Memory is the system of component of the computer in which information is stored. There are two types of computer memory: RAM and ROM.
RAM (random access memory) is the volatile computer memory, used for creating loading, and running programs and for manipulating and temporarily storing data.
ROM (read only memory) is nonvolatile, non-modifiable computer memory, used to hold programmed instructions to the system.
The more memory you have in your computer, the more operations you can perform that is the faster it works.
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Storage hardware
The purpose of storage hardware is to store computer instructions and data in a form that is relatively permanent and. Storage hardware serves the same basic functions as do office filing systems except that it stores data as electromagnetic signals. The most common ways of storing data are Hard disk (HDD), floppy disk and CD-ROM.
Hard disk is a rigid disk coated with magnetic material, for storing programs and relatively large amounts of data.
Floppy disk (diskette) — thin, usually flexible plastic disk coated with magnetic material, for storing computer data and programs. There are two formats for floppy disks: 5.25» and 3.5». 5.25» is not used in modern computer systems because of it relatively large size, flexibility and small capacity. 3.5» disks are formatted 1.44 megabytes and are widely used.
CD-ROM (compact disc read only memory) is a compact disc on which a large amount of digitized read-only data can be stored. CD-ROMs are very popular now because of the growing speed, which CD-ROM drives can provide nowadays.
Output hardware
The purpose of output hardware is to provide the user with the means to view information produced by the computer system. Information is output in either hardcopy or softcopy form. Hardcopy output can be held in your hand, such as paper with text (word or numbers) or graphics printed on it. Softcopy output is displayed on a monitor. Monitor is a component with a display screen for viewing computer data, television programs, etc. Printer is a computer output device that produces a paper copy of data or graphics. Modem is an example of communication hardware — an electronic device that makes possible the transmission of data to or from computer via telephone or other communication lines.
Hardware comes in many configurations, depending on what the computer system is designed to do. Hardware can fill several floors of a large office building or can fit on your lap.
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Software
A computer to complete a job requires more than just the actual equipment or hardware we see and touch. It requires Software — programs for directing the operation of a computer or electronic data.
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