Дидактическая единица 8 История развития теоретической грамматики

№

п/п

Понятия, утверждения

Определения

1

2

3

1.1.

grammar

structure

linguistics

practical grammar

language

grammatical rule

grammatical form

the set of rules that describe the structure of a language and control the way that sentences are formed

the set of relations between the elements of a system

the study of language and how it works

a manual of practical mastery of the corresponding part of language

a means of forming and storing ideas as reflections of reality and exchanging them in the process of human intercourse

a statement or principle that describes the way the words in a language can be used and combined

a division of the word on the principle of expressing a certain grammatical meaning

1.2.

transformational grammar

communicatively

orientated grammar

generative semantics

pragmatically orientated grammar

textual grammar

structural grammar

a type of generative grammar, first introduced by N.Chomsky. It holds that some rules are transformational, i.e. they change one structure into another according to such prescribed conventions as moving, inserting, deleting, and replacing items

a type of grammar studying the theme-rheme integration in a sentence

a school of linguistics which propounds the idea of the semantic level where all the information relevant for the syntactic structure of a sentence is accumulated

a type of grammar focusing its attention on the functional side of language units

a type of grammar placing text in focus

a type of grammar whose aim is to give a formalized description of language system as it exists, without being concerned with questions of correct and incorrect usage

1.3.

plane of content

plane of expression

synonymy

symbol

the purely semantic elements contained in language

the material (formal) units of language taken by themselves, apart from the meanings rendered by them

coincidence of words in the basic meaning

a mark, letter, number etc used to represent something

1.4.

morphology

syntax

study of the morphemes of a language and of how they are combined to make words

(rules for) sentence building

1.5

system

set

function

synchrony

diachrony

speech

a structured set of elements connected by a common function

a group of items

special purpose of a unit, its ability to serve a certain aim

coexistence of lingual elements

different time-periods in the development of lingual elements as well as language as a whole

the manifestation of the system of language in the process of intercourse

1.6.

paradigmatic relations

syntagmatic relations

such as exist between elements of the system outside the strings where they co-occur

immediate linear relations between units in a segmental sequence

1.7.

text

sentence

phrase

word

morpheme

phoneme

suprasegmental unit

segmental unit

minor syntax

a coherent stretch of speech which is a semantico-topical and syntactic unity

the immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose

a meaningful unit differentiating sentences and integrating words

a meaningful unit differentiating phrases and integrating morphemes

the elementary meaningful part of the word

unit of the system of word-distinguishing sounds of a language as represented ideally by single letters of the alphabet

a unit (intonation contour, accent, pause, word-order pattern) which does not exist by itself but is realized together with segmental units

the grammatical description of phrases

2.1.

bilateral unit

grammeme

a grammatical unit possessing a directly observable material structure and directly unobservable content

grammatical information given by a word

2.2.

suffix

inflectional morpheme

derivational morpheme

inflection

prefix

root

an affix added at the end of a word , base, or root to form a new word or form of the word

a morpheme serving to derive a form of a word and having no lexical meaning

a morpheme serving to form one word from another

an addition or change to the basic form of a word

an affix added at the beginning of a word or base to form a new word

the element left after all affixes have been removed from a complex word, carrying the basic lexical meaning of the word

2.3.

environment

distribution

allomorph

consonant

sibilant

complementary distribution

elements of a syntactic sequence immediately adjoining the given element (unit) and determining the properties of the position occupied by it

the total of all environments of a language unit

a concrete manifestation of a morpheme, a variant, an alternative of a morpheme

speech sound produced by a complete or partial stoppage of the breath

one of the sibilant speech sounds, for example ‘s’ or ‘sh’

relation of formally different morphs having the same function in different environments

2.4.

distributional morpheme types

bound morpheme

free morpheme

overt morpheme

covert morpheme (=zero morpheme)

segmental morpheme

additive morpheme

replacive morpheme

continuous morpheme

discontinuous morpheme

types of morphemes discriminated as a result of the application of distributional analysis to the morphemic level

a morpheme that cannot form a word by itself

a morpheme that can build up a word by itself

a genuine, explicit morpheme building up words

an implicit morpheme

a morpheme made up by phonemes

an outer grammatical suffix

a morpheme built up on the basis of root (or vowel) interchange

an uninterrupted string of phonemes building up a morpheme

a morpheme built up of an interrupted string of phonemes

2.5.

grammatical form

grammatical meaning

grammatical category

the sum total of all the formal means constantly employed to render that or another grammatical meaning

the meaning uniting the individual meanings of the correlated paradigmatic forms

a two-fold unity of grammatical meaning and grammatical form

2.6.

opposition

gradual opposition

binary opposition

ternary opposition

marked member of the opposition

unmarked member of the opposition

correlation of categorial forms having a certain function

an opposition whose members are characterized by the expression of a certain degree of one and the same categorial feature

an opposition consisting of two members

an opposition consisting of three members

the member of the opposition characterized by the presence of a certain differential feature

the member of the opposition characterized by the absence of a differential feature

2.7.

analytical type of word-form derivation

synthetic type of word-form derivation

sound alternations

analytical forms

a type of word-form derivation implying the use of auxiliary words

a type of word-form derivation implying changes in the body of the word without having recourse to auxiliary words

a way of expressing grammatical categories which consists in changing a sound inside the root

consist of at least two words, one rendering the grammatical meaning, the other – the lexical meaning of the analytical complex

2.8.

part of speech

a class of words distinguished by a particular set of lexico-grammatical features

2.9.

reflective category

a category expressing categorial meanings which are not inherent in the referent in question

3.1.

the criterion of meaning

the criterion of form

the criterion of function

a principle of classifying words into parts of speech; the criterion presupposes the evaluation of the generalized meaning, which is characteristic of all the subsets of words constituting a given part o speech

a principle of classifying words into parts of speech taking into consideration the morphological characteristics of a type of word

a principle of classifying words into parts of speech which concerns the syntactic role of words in the sentence typical of a part of speech

3.2.

notional part of speech

functional part of speech

a part of speech of full nominative value

a part of speech having a partial nominative value

3.3.

syntactic classification of words

the syntactico-distributional classification of words based on the study of their combinability by means of substitution testing

3.4.

derivational paradigm

a derivational series that unites word-classes

3.5.

nucleus (=core)

periphery

is constituted by those language units that comprise all the characteristic features of the given part of speech

phenomena that lack some characteristics of the given part of speech or have a number of features of another part of speech but still belong to the given part of speech

3.6.

“ranks” of words

“ranks” of words established according to their mutual relations as defined or defining (O. Jespersen)

3.7.1.

categorial meaning

substance

stem

derivative

the most general meaning rendered by language and expressed by systemic correlations of word-forms

the categorial meaning of the noun as a part of speech

the part of a word that does not change when an ending is added

formed from another word

3.7.2.

subclassification of nouns

subdivision of nouns into subseries in accord with various particular semantico-functional and formal features of the constituent words

3.7.3.

category of number

singular

plural

a grammatical category of the noun which is expressed by the by the opposition of the plural form of the noun to the singular form of the noun

the form of a word that refers to one person or thing

a word or form used for referring to more than one person or thing

3.7.4.

gender

the gender of a word is whether it is masculine, feminine, or neuter

3.7.5.

noun

case

genitive

a word used for referring to a person, thing, place, or quality

a form of a noun , adjective, or pronoun in some languages that shows its relationship to other words in a sentence

showing source or possession

3.7.6.

article

function words

referent

generic

position

subject

predicative

a determining unit of specific nature accompanying the noun in communicative collocation

words of incomplete nominative meaning and non-self-dependent, mediatory functions in the sentence

the denoted object of the world

of a genus; common to a whole group or class, not special

place where something is, esp. in relation to others

the independent member of a two-member predication, containing the person component of predicativity

the nominal part of a compound nominal predicate

3.8.1.

verb

process

tense

function

predicate

stem-structure

is the overall term for main verbs, structurals and modals, all being able to express or help expressing tense, correlation and/or aspect

the general categorial meaning of the verb

a verbal category which reflects the objective category of time and expresses on this background the relations between the time of the action and the time of the utterance

special purpose of a unit, its ability to serve a certain aim; sometimes equivalent to some abstract syntactic meaning

the member of a predication containing the mood and tense (or only mood) components of predicativity

the construction of the part of a word does not change when an ending is added

3.8.2

finite verb

notional verbs

auxiliary verbs

copular verbs

modal verbs

past indefinite

Participle II

semi-notional verbs

statal verbs

actional verbs

durative verbs

terminative verbs

transitive verb

intransitive verbs

causative verbs

a verb explicitly expressing predication on the basis of the categories of tense and mood, verb of complete predication

verbs of full nominative value

verbs constituting grammatical elements of the categorial forms of the verb

verbs forming part of a compound nominal predicate

verbs used with the infinitive as predicative markers expressing relational meanings of the subject attitude type, i.e. ability, obligation, permission, advisability, etc.

one of the three basic forms of the English verb

the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the adjective, serving as the qualifying-processual name

a group of verbs constituted by aspectual verbs and verbs with a modal shade of meaning which do not weaken or lose their lexical meaning but which cannot form a predicate by themselves

verbs that denote the state of their subject

verbs that express the action performed by the subject, i.e. they present the subject as an active doer

verbs denoting actions that do not imply any internal limit

verbs denoting an action implying a certain limit beyond which it cannot go on

a verb always used with a direct object

a verb used without a direct object

verbs indicating that some person or inanimate entity brings about a new state of affairs

3.8.3

aspective character of the verb

meanings describing the inner character of the verbal process

3.8.4.

grammatical time

finitude

infinitive

past participle

adjective

gerund

tense

a category dividing the verb into finite and non-finite forms; the category has a lexico-grammatical force

the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the noun, serving as the verbal name of a process

the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the adjective, serving as the qualifying-processual name

the non-finite form of the verb which, like the infinitive, combines the properties of the verb with those of the noun

3.8.5.

person

speaker

listener

the forms of pronouns or verbs that show who is being referred to

someone who is talking

someone who listens to a person speaking

3.8.6.

present

past

the present tense, a constituent of the category of tense

the past tense, a constituent of the category of tense

3.8.7.

time correlation

precedence

aspect

aspective

a verbal category constituted by the opposition of perfect and non-perfect forms

the meaning of the category of time correlation

a morphological category of the verb that expresses the speaker’s focusing on the verbal process or not

relating to aspect

3.8.8.

voice

speech

passive meaning

middle voice

neuter voice

reflexive voice

self-pronouns

reciprocal voice

link-verb

a verbal category that shows the direction of the process as regards the participants of the situation reflected in the syntactic construction

power, act, manner, of speaking

a meaning that an active verb can take under certain conditions

the problem of voice arising in connection with sentences of the type: The door opened

see middle voice

the problem of voice arising in connection with verbs followed by self-pronouns

compound noun pronouns whose second element –self expresses the anaphorical relation of the first element, i.e. it shows that the first element refers to the person mentioned previously in the sentence

the problem of voice arising in connection with verbs followed by one of the following pronominal combinations: each other or one another

verbs that introduce the nominal part of the predicate (the predicative) which is commonly expressed by a noun, an adjective, or a phrase of a similar semantico-grammatical character

3.8.9.

mood

the grammatical category of the verb reflecting the relation of the action denoted by the verb to reality from the speaker’s point of view

3.9.

adjective

qualitative adjectives

relative adjectives

evaluative adjectives

specificative adjectives

a part of speech characterized by the categorial semantics of property of a substance, the morphological category of the degrees of comparison, combinability with nouns, verbs, adverbs of degree, prepositional combinations, and its functions of an attribute and a predicative

adjectives denoting various qualities of substances which admit of a quantitative estimation

adjectives that express qualities of a substance through their relation to materials, place, time, or action, i.e. indirectly

adjectives that actually give some qualitative evaluation to the substance referent

adjectives that point out the corresponding native property of the substance referent

3.10.

adverb

secondary property

a word expressing either property of an action, or property of another property, or circumstances in which an action takes place

property of another property

3.11.

pronoun

a word used instead of a noun for referring to a person or thing that has been mentioned earlier

3.12.

numeral

a word that represents an amount or quantity

3.13.

preposition

case inflection

conjunction

word or group of words often placed before a noun or pronoun to indicate place, direction, source, method, etc.

inflected form of a noun that shows its relation to another noun

a word that is used to join other words, phrases, clauses, and sentences

4.1.

phrase

syntactic unit (=segmental unit)

valence

adjunct

adjoinment

a combination of two or more words which is a grammatical unit but not an analytical form of a word

a unit of language that consists of phonemes

the combining power of words in relation to other words in syntactically subordinate positions

a qualifying word, phrase, etc., depending on a particular member of a sentence

a means of syntactic connection of phrase constituents

4.2.

principles of classification

head of phrase

free phrases

simple phrase

complex phrase

obligatory phrase

optional phrase

endocentric word combination

notional word combination

dominational word combination

verbal word combination

rules for putting into a class

the principal element of a phrase

word combinations made up in speech for each given occasion

a word combination that comprises two components: the head and an adjunct

word combinations which are the result of head or adjunct expansion in the sentence

word combination based on strong government

word combination based on weak government and adjoinment

a word combination in which at least one of the components (or both) has a function coinciding with the function of the word combination as a whole

a syntagmatic grouping of notional words alone

a word combination in which one of the constituents is principal (dominating) and the other is subordinate (dominated)

a word combination in which the head is expressed by a verb

4.3.

agreement (=concord)

government

a method of expressing a syntactical relationship, which consists in making the subordinate word take a form similar to that of the word to which it is subordinate

the use of a certain form of the subordinate word required by its head word, but not coinciding with the form of the head word itself

4.4.

infinitival phrases

gerundial phrases

a partially predicative grouping formed by a combination of an infinitive with a substantive element

a partially predicative grouping formed by a combination of a gerund with a substantive element

4.5.

noun phrase

determiner

a word combination in which the head is expressed by a noun

a direct constituent of the noun phrase and functions as partner of the noun, but is not a noun modifier

4.6.

reference

verb phrase

constituent

the denotation of a thing, person or idea

the partner of noun phrase-subject in the sentence base

a linguistic form that enters into some larger construction

5.1.

sentence

communicative purpose

subject

predicate

unit of communication

predication

the immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose

the communicative principle used for classifying sentences

the independent member of a two-member predication, containing the person component of predicativity

the member of a predication containing the mood and tense (or only mood) components of predicativity

the act of referring the nominative content of the sentence to reality; assigning a property or relation to the denoted thing, person or idea

5.2.

grammatical category of person

tense

objective modality

a grammatical category of the verb having a “reflective” character; the personal semantics in the finite verb is the reflection in the verb lexeme of the personal semantics of the subject referent

a verbal category which reflects the objective category of time and expresses on this background the relations between the time of the action and the time of the utterance

modality expressed by the category of mood

5.3.

parts of the sentence

object

attribute

syntactic function

clausal type of the subject

predicative

elements of the constituent structure of the sentence

a secondary part of the sentence that modifies the verbal component of predication, denoting the person or thing to which the action of the verb passes on

a secondary part of the sentence modifying the nominal component of predication or some substantival element in the verbal component of predication

syntactical properties; syntactic role

a subject expressed by a finite clause possessing primary predication

the nominal part of a compound nominal predicate

5.3.1.

word order

communicative function of word order

grammatical function of word order

inversion

a syntactic characteristic of all the sentence components; the order of elements in a sentence

the sentence position of an element varies depending on its communicative value

the sentence position of an element is determined by its syntactic function

any deviation from the rigid order of words

5.4.

linear order

immediate constituents

model of immediate constituents

basic sentence (=kernel sentence)

transformational grammar

involving words that are directly connected and follow one after the other

constituent elements immediately entering into any meaningful combination

a scheme of analysis that consists in dividing the whole of the sentence into two groups: that of the subject and that of the predicate, which, in their turn, are divided into their sub-group constituents according to the successive subordinative order of the latter

a syntactic unit serving as a “sentence-root” and providing an objective ground for identifying syntactic categorial oppositions

a type of generative grammar, first introduced by N.Chomsky. It holds that some rules are transformational, i.e. they change one structure into another according to such prescribed conventions as moving, inserting, deleting, and replacing items

5.5.

semantic syntax

agent(ive)

locative

beneficiary

a conception that holds that the referent of the sentence is the situation; the combination of arguments with the predicator constitutes a semantic model of the situation

the person or other being that instigates the happening denoted by the verb

the case that identifies the location or spatial orientation of the state or action indicated by the verb

the case of the typically animate being who benefits from the action or state indicated by the verb

5.6.

pragmalinguistics

directive

performative utterance

a branch of linguistics that studies ways of expressing different purposes of communication of the speaker

a speech act that embodies an effort on the part of the speaker to get the addressee to do something

in a performative, the issuing of the utterance is the performing of an action

5.7.1.

rheme

transition

theme

declarative sentence

imperative sentence

functional sentence perspective

the component of the actual division of the sentence that expresses the basic informative part of the communication, its contextually relevant centre

components of the actual division of the sentence which possess a higher degree of communicative dynamism than the theme but a lower degree of communicative dynamism than the rheme

the component of the actual division of the sentence that expresses the starting point of the communication, i.e. it denotes an object or phenomenon about which something is reported

a sentence that expresses a statement, either affirmative or negative

a sentence that expresses inducement, either affirmative or negative

actual division of the sentence

5.7.2.

article

rhematization

a determining unit of specific nature accompanying the noun in communicative collocation

5.8.

inducement

interrogative sentence

something that persuades someone to do something

a sentence that expresses a question, i.e. a request for information wanted by the speaker from the listener

5.9.

transformational rules

transforms

nominalization

a list of rules which cover up the derivation of sentences out of kernel sentences

syntactic patterns that closely parallel other syntactic patterns, from which they are conveniently considered to derive, but that are nevertheless distinct in form and use

transformation of the sentence, interpreted as an element of paradigmatics, into the substantive phrase

6.1.

predicative line

simple sentence

composite sentence

the predicative connection of the finite verb with the subject of the sentence

a sentence in which only one predicative line is expressed

a sentence formed by two or more predicative lines

6.2.

compound sentence

complex sentence

coordination

subordination

a composite sentence built on the principle of coordination

a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordination

a device that links up elements of the same rank

a device that links up elements of different ranks

6.3.

syndetic linking

asydetic linking

the method of joining the clauses of a composite sentence by means of special words designed for this function

the method of joining the clauses of a composite sentence without the help of any conjunctions or other connectives

6.4.1.

base sentence

matrix sentence

principal clause

subordinate clause

the initial, basic element of syntactic derivation

a base sentence performing the role of a matrix in relation to the others, insert sentences

the clause of a complex sentence that positionally dominates the subordinate clause

a finite dependent clause

6.4.2.

adverbial clause

attributive clause

concession clause

predicative clause

a clause functioning in the matrix sentence as adverbial

a clause functioning in the matrix sentence as attribute

a clause indicating that the situation in the matrix clause is unexpected in view of what is said in the concessive clause

a clause functioning in the matrix sentence as predicative

6.5.1.

coordinate clause

adversative type of semantic relations

the clause which is related to the initial clause in a compound sentence

a type of semantic relations between the clauses making up the compound sentence, as expressed, for instance, by the conjunction but

6.5.2.

composite sentence

a sentence formed by two or more predicative lines

6.6.

semi-complex sentence

semi-compound sentence

dependent clause

verbless clauses

contrast

a semi-composite sentence built up on the principle of subordination

a semi-composite sentence built up on the principle of coordination

a clause that is embedded in a larger structure as a clause element or as part of a clause element

reductions of finite or non-finite clauses with the verb be

difference which is clearly seen when unlike things are put together

7.1.

complex syntactic unit

supra-phrasal unity

topical unity

coherence

cohesion

dicteme

a minimal unit of text analysis

a combination of separate sentences forming a textual unity

a unifying topic of a textual stretch

the continuity of meaning that enables others to make sense of the supra-phrasal unity

devices for linking the components of a supra-phrasal unity

an elementary topical unit fulfilling the functions of nomination, predication, topicalization, stylization (M. Blokh)

7.2.

cataphoric (=epiphoric, prospective) connection

connective conjunction

parallel construction

anaphora

cumulation

metatextual construction

cumulation effected by connective elements that relate a given sentence to one that is to follow it

word performing a syntactic linking function

repetition of syntactic constructions

a connective element that relates a given sentence to the one that precedes it

a type of sentence connection

a construction organizing the content plane of the text into a coherent whole and giving the latter a modal colouring

7.3.

informal conversation

communicative direction

dialogue

parcellated construction

composition

a talk between two or more people in an informal situation

the principle according to which monologue and dialogue sequences are discriminated

a process in which two people or groups have discussions in order to solve problems

two or more collocations separated by a sentence tone but related to one another as parts of one and the same sentence

the parts of which a text is made up

7.4.

communicative cohesion

syntactic cohesion

finds its expression in certain theme-rheme sequences in a text

the use of connective conjunctions, parallel constructions, question-answer sequences, and sentencoids

8

cooperative principle

composite sentence

nexus

endocentric phrase

discourse

semantic case

classical scientific grammar

descriptive linguistics

conversational principles

one of the rules of conducting a conversation

a sentence formed by two or more predicative lines

a predicative (and semi-predicative) relation between words (O. Jespersen)

a word combination in which at least one of the components has a function coinciding with the function of the word combination as a whole

written or spoken language, especially when it is studied in order to understand how people use language

an element of the deep structure of a sentence

a period in the history of English grammars, roughly from 1891 till the 1940’s

a linguistic school whose aim is to give a formalized description of language system as it exists

the cooperative principle and the politeness principle to be observed in conversation