3. The main features of the republican system of the Great Novgorod

During the earliest period of Russian history, Novgorod appears as the most important city in the North of the country. In those days, the Slavic tribes inhabiting the region of Kiev were called Russians, while the population of the Novgorod region was known as Slovenes. These names were still used in the oldest part of the Russkaya Pravda, dating from the beginning of the 11th century. The principal chronicles covering the earliest period of Russian history, the Primary Chronicle and the First Novgorod Chronicle, clearly demonstrate the tensions which existed between the two cities. More than once, the prince of Novgorod succeeded in taking the throne of the grand prince in Kiev. According to dynastic custom in the Kievan realm, the brothers and other important male relatives of the grand prince of Kiev would usually each receive a principality. Upon the death of the grand prince or a local ruling prince, the eldest son would not normally succeed; instead, the principalities were redistributed among the leading members of the ruling house, the descendants of Rurik. In this way, several of the most famous grand princes of Kiev – notably St.Vladimir, who converted to Christianity in 988, and his son Iaroslav the Wise, the legislator of the oldest part of the Russkaya Pravda – came to the Kievan throne through Novgorod.

Novgorod’s geographical position in the North-West of the country proved to be a great advantage in the 13th century when the Mongols conquered and devastated most of the former Kievan Empire. At that time, the union achieved under earlier grand princes of Kiev had already broken down and the country was fragmented into a number of almost independent principalities. During the campaign of 1237-1238, most of the Central Russian cities were destroyed, but the Mongol army turned south when it was only 100 km from Novgorod. The fact that Novgorod and the surrounding countryside escaped Mongol occupation helps to explain not only its enhanced position in 13th century Russia, but also the comparative richness of its contemporary historical sources.

In its heyday during the 13th and 14th centuries, the city was often referred to as “the Lord Novgorod the Great”; the proud position of the city was equally reflected by the contemporary saying “Who can stand against God and Novgorod the Great?”.

Novgorod’s System of Government

Originally, like other provincial Russian cities, Novgorod was ruled by a member of the family of the Kievan Grand Pince, usually a son or a brother.

The prince was employed primarily as the commander of the army and was not allowed to exercise too much influence in the city’s internal affairs.

Even the earliest sources already show that Novgorod’s enterprising and self-conscious citizenry was always inclined to take a strong and independent line with its princes. In the 13th century, the custom of inviting a prince and dismissing him when he was not any longer to the liking of the city became firmly embedded. A contract was concluded with a new prince, who had to swear to uphold the ancient rights and freedoms of the city.

When the prince was absent in Novgorod – a frequent occurrence – his duties were carried out by his lieutenant, the namestnik. In the actual government of the city, the most important person was the bishop (after 1165: the archbishop). His power rested chiefly on his generally acknowledged authority, which allowed him to mediate in the frequent controversies which raged in the city’s internal affairs. Initially, the bishop of Novgorod was appointed by the metropolitan of Kiev; but, from the middle of the 12th century, it became customary for the Novgorod assembly (the veche) to elect its own bishop from the local clergy.

The principal secular official was the posadnik, the mayor, who was assisted by the tysiatskii. While the tysiatskii (‘thousandman’, chiliarch) was originally a military officer, commanding thousand men, his office embraced a number of civil, commercial, administrative and judicial functions, and the precise distribution of the tasks between the posadnik and the tysiatskii is a matter of speculation. Both offices were initially filled by appointees of the prince, but already in 1126 the first locally appointed posadnik is mentioned. Three years later, the First Novgorod Chronicle relates that “Daniil came from Kiev to be posadnik in Novgorod”; from 1130 onwards, the custom of electing the posadnik remained firmly entrenched.

At a somewhat later date, Novgorod also successfully enforced its right to elect its own tysiatskii.

The city of Novgorod was divided into two sides by the river Volkhov, the Sophia and the Merchant Side (Torgovaia storona). The former consisted of the Potters’ (or People’s) Quarter, the Quarter behind the Citadel (Zagorodskii konets), and the Nerev Quarter, the latter of the Slavno and the Carpenters’ Quarter. The quarters were each divided into “hundreds” (sotni), and these into streets (ulitsy). These units had a certain amount of self-government through their elected elders and councils.

In theory, supreme power in Novgorod belonged to the veche or popular assembly (see, also, the chapter on “Popular Assemblies”). In practice, during the later period of Novgorod’s independence, the Council of Lords (Sovet Gospod), which prepared the business to be dealt with by the veche, was of greater importance. This Council consisted of the acting posadnik and tysiatskii, (some of) their predecessors, and other prominent citizens

The democratic character of Novgorod’s government was also tempered by its rigid class division; the sources distinguish between boyars, prominent citizens (zhitye liudi), merchants, common citizens (chernye liudi, lit. black people), and several classes of unfree persons. The principal city offices remained firmly in the hands of the boyars for the entire duration of Novgorod’s independence.

All this resulted in Novgorod’s history being characterized by excessive conflict and strife: between various social classes, between family factions among the leading boyars, between the different parts of the city. It was in this situation that the bishop emerged as the most effective conciliatory agent.

Novgorod was not only a city-state, but also the centre of a large empire, covering the entire northern half of European Russia and extending even beyond the Ural Mountains. It consisted of a metropolitan area, the five-fifths (piatni) adjoining (or almost) the city territory, and the more distant volosti, of which Dvina Land, a vast area in northern Russia, was the most important. The entire empire, including a number of cities situated therein, was ruled from Novgorod. Only the city of Pskov, as related above, succeeded in securing its independence from Novgorod after a lengthy struggle in 1347.

Population. Dominating position in Novgorod was occupied by boyars – the owners of large patrimonies and commercial and artisan enterprises. They were part of Council - Ospoda, which was managed the state. From their number were elected all of higher commanding persons: posadnik, archbishop (Vladika), tysyackiy, sotskie and other. The second layer of ruling class was zhiti people - middle feudal lords, which were traders and usurers and occupied middle administrative, judicial and diplomatic positions. The third layer was svoezemcy - the special category, intermediate between feudal lords and peasants. They were landowners, independently conducted the small economy, and rented part of their land to the peasants (kortomu).

As it was already mentioned, in Novgorod an important role played clergy. Vladika, for example, was the keeper of state treasury, supreme church judge, the keeper of standards of measures and weights, etc.

Novgorod’s merchants which led a large transit trade had their own lands. They were organized into hundreds on specialization: tanners, drapers, butchers etc. In Novgorod was organization of oversea merchants, large trade courtyard with a church (German or Goth), using a right of exterritoriality.

Other urban population were divided on the eldest and molodshikh or black, trivial artisans and retailers. A rural population, as well as in other lands, was presented smerdami, both free and dependent. Among the dependant were so-called pawners - people, who left the community and passed under jurisdiction of boyars; polovnikov - people, without their own lands and implements, and sittings on earth of feudal lord for the half of profit from it. Polovniki divided on izornikov (ploughmen – from a word “orat’” – to plough), ogorodnikov and kochetnikov (anglors – from a word “koch’” – the boat). Dependent people had, however, a right to leave from the owners, when they pay a debt. Time of leaving was considered Filippovo Zagoven’e – on November, 14.

4. Novgorod and Pskov's judicial documents as the law’s relics of the period of feudal fragmentation.