4. Social structure of Kievan Rus’

All population of Kievan Rus’ can be relatively divided into three categories according to their legal status: independent, half-dependent and dependent people.

The princes and prince's retinue (druzhina) were the leaders of independent people.

The earliest Kievan princes from the Rurikid dynasty are often shown as acting together with their retinue, their druzhina. The origin of the oldest part of the RP is in fact closely related to problems concerning the druzhina of Iaroslav the Wise (see the chapter on the RP).

The druzhina of the first Kievan rulers appears to have been predominantly ethnically Scandinavian, there are good reasons to assume that its set-up was generally in agreement with what was customary among Slavic princes. The evidence from different European cultures of the heroic era is strikingly similar. The druzhina in its heyday was characterized by the basic equality of its members, combined with a definite interior hierarchy. At the top was the leader, king or prince, surrounded by senior and junior members who had entered into a voluntary relationship of subordination. They were to respect the king’s leadership, but could unilaterally decide to leave. The king must treat his followers with respect and, in particular, supply them generously with everything required by their status.

The treaty of 912 with Byzantium was concluded on behalf of the Kievan grand prince Oleg “and all the serene and great princes and the great boyars under his sway” by fifteen envoys, all bearing apparently Viking names. The treaty of 945 was more detailed in its introductory provisions; it began as follows:

“We are the envoys and merchants of the Russian nation: Ivar, the envoy of Igor, grand prince of Rus’, and the general envoys Vuefast for Sviatoslav, Igor’s son, Iskusevi for the princess Olga [Igor’s wife], Sludy for Igor, Igor’s nephew, Ouleb for Vladislav, Kanitsar for Predslava, Shikhbern for Sfandr, Ouleb’s wife, Pras’ten’ for Turduv, Libiar for Fastov, Grim for Sfir’kov, Prasten for Akun,nephew of Igor, [and thirteen more of such pairs, plus one single individual Sverki], and the merchants, sent by Igor, grand prince of Rus’, and from each prince and all the people of the Russian land.” [1, 143]

All this fits perfectly into the druzhina construction, where a number of aristocratic personalities (they are called ‘princes’), each having their own military and trading interests, combine under the leadership of a king-like figure.

For the same year, the Primary Chronicle offers an entry of particular interest for understanding the druzhina system. Igor’s druzhina addressed its lord as follows: “The servants of Sveinald are adorned with weapons and fine raiment, but we are naked. Go forth with us, prince, after tribute, that both you and we may profit thereby.” Sveinald, as later entries in the Chronicle show, was a great magnate, who served as commander-in-chief after Igor’s death and during the minority of his son Sviatoslav. The treaty of 971 with Byzantium was concluded by “Sviatoslav, grand prince of Rus’, and by Sveinald”, without any indication of the latter’s status. He obviously had a druzhina of his own and was not an immediate relative of the prince. His absence among the signatories of the 945 treaty is conspicuous.

All through the period covered by the Primary Chronicle, i.e. up to 1116, the druzhina remains present as the prince’s retinue, taking an active part in political and military decision-making and being actually around the prince most of the time. In a few cases (in 996, 1078 and 1093), the Chronicle refers to the prince being accompanied by a “small druzhina”; then a small detachment in the nature of a bodyguard is obviously meant. This would agree with the subsequent development of the druzhina; in the First Novgorod Chronicle, the druzhina is still in evidence; initially, in the same sense as in the Primary Chronicle, but later on more and more as an ordinary detachment of moderate size. The members of such a force were just regular soldiers and not any longer the personal companions and advisors of the prince.

At the top were boyars. They formed the upper class of Kievan society. The boyars were reciprocal with merchants and the urban elite on the land of Kiev by their legal status. Their immunities and rights were: free of taxes, to be landowner (just boyars), if a boyar or a druzhinnik dies, his estate does not return to the prince. If there are no sons, the daughters will inherit, the word of boyars was the evidence in the court, and Russkaya Pravda protected life and property of boyars more careful. Their duty was a military serving.

The clergy were a part of a free population and they were divided into secular (white) and regular (black) clergy. The regular clergy played the main role in the state at that time; it was the clergy of monks and nuns. The best scientists (Nestor, Marion, Nikon), doctors (Agapitus), artists (Alimpiy), who held chronicles, rewrote books, organized different schools, lived and worked in monasteries as well. They also didn’t pay taxes.

The middle group of free people was given by cities. Townsmen were legally free, but in fact, they were dependent on the feudal top. They paid taxes, repaired the roads and bridges, in case of war they had to carry a military service.

The lowest group of a free population was represented by peasants – smerdy (servs). They owned land and cattle. Smerdy formed the majority of the Kievan Rus’'s population, they paid fixed taxes and they served in the compulsory military service with their own weapon and horses. Only smerd’s sons could inherit his property. Daughters could inherit only mother’s property. Russkaya Pravda protected a slave's property and his personality as well but a penalty for the crime against him was less, than for the crime against a boyar.

Half-dependent peoples were called zakupy. Russkaya Pravda protected this category of population by “Ustav pro zakupov”. On their legal status they were equal to the free people. They could be a witnesses in a court, they paid taxes e. g. Zakup was called a person who took a loan (kupu). When he returned this ‘kupa’, he would be free again. If he doesn’t give it back in time, he would turn to slave.

Dependent people were called slaves (kholopy). First only men were called so, but some time later all dependent people were called so. They were equal to the things; they had no rights, any property (they were property); they could be sold, changed, pawned; the owner bore the responsibility for the crimes committed by slave, and, in other hand, owner took fines for the crimes against his slave. The sources of slavery were: birth from slave, prisoners of war, marriage with slave, self-selling, runaway or non-payment debt zakup. The Russkaya Pravda also contained the norms wich protected this category of population - “Ustav pro kholopov”.

All categories of population weren’t closed. For example, smerd could turn in merchant, or boyar (for certain services to the state prince could grant a land and title). Or merchant could fail and become an izgoy. These were people who didn’t belong to any of other categories.

There was no question of all being equal under the law: the rape or abduction of the daughter of a boyar merited compensation of 5 grivnas in gold and the same sum as a fine for the bishop; but only one grivna of gold was demanded for the rape or abduction of a daughter of 'lesser boyars', and smaller sums further down the social scale.