Методичка по английскому языку для ИТС (пр. С.С.Иванов)

How many periods can the development (progress) of biotechnology be subdivided into?

What period is the longest and covers about 8,000 years?

What kind of technologies did ancient tribes learn to use during the empirical period?

What famous (well-known) names is the etiological period connected with? What did they found?

What discoveries was the third (biotechnical) period marked by? Who are the authors of them?

When did the fourth (gene-technical) period in biotechnology start?

What is this period characterised by?

What spheres of biotechnology have become clear-cut during the previous 1015 years?

What processes does medical biotechnology deal with?

What kinds of products does immune biotechnology cover?

What does biogeotechnology focus on?

What is engineering enzymology based on?

Biotechnology is an integral part of modern foodstuff industry, isn‘t

it?

What kinds of special and general subjects does the curriculum of biotechnologists training include?

In what kinds of processes do senior students - biotechnologists specialize?

In what branches of national industry (what industries) will you be able to work after graduating from the university?

Read the following dialogue in pairs. Try to reproduce it. Compose your own one, please.

A: I am sure that biotechnology is a very promising field of science and technology.

В: I am of the same opinion. That is why I am specializing in biotechnology.

120

A:And what year student are you?

B:I‘m in my fourth year. And we are having a number of special disciplines now. It is a great variety of chemical-biological subjects.

A:Good for you! And I‘m only in my first year. We are practically dealing with general subjects so far.

B:Oh, there‘s nothing to worry about. Time is getting short. In some four-five years you‘ll obtain a MSc degree and become a biotechnology specialist. By the way, where would you like to work?

A:I think in pharmaceutical industry. And what about you?

B:As for me, I would prefer food industry.

Say what information you have learned about:

biotechnology as a science

the four periods of biotechnology progressing

outstanding scientists-biotechnologists

special subjects of biotechnology

spheres of biotechnology application

Supplementary Texts for Independent Reading

Industrial biotechnology

Industrial biotechnology (known mainly in Europe as white biotechnology) is the application of biotechnology for industrial purposes, including manufacturing, alternative energy (or "bioenergy"), and biomaterials. It includes the practice of using cells or components of cells like enzymes to generate industrially useful products. The Economist speculated

(as cited in the Economist article listed in the "References" section) industrial biotechnology might significantly impact the

chemical industry. The Economist also suggested it can enable economies to become less dependent on fossil fuels.

121

The industrial biotechnology community generally accepts an informal divide between industrial and pharmaceutical biotechnology. An example would be that of companies growing fungus to produce antibiotics, e.g. penicillin from the penicillium fungi. One view holds that this is industrial production; the other viewpoint is that it would not strictly lie within the domain of pure industrial production, given its inclusion within medical biotechnology.

This may be better understood by calling to mind the classification by the U.S. biotechnology lobby group, Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO) of three "waves" of biotechnology. The first wave, Green Biotechnology, refers to agricultural biotechnology. The second wave, Red Biotechnology, refers to pharmaceutical and medical biotechnology. The third wave, White Biotechnology, refers to industrial biotechnology. In actuality, each of the waves may overlap each of the others. Industrial biotechnology, particularly the development of large-scale bioenergy refineries, will likely involve dedicated genetically modified crops as well as the large-scale bioprocessing and fermentation as is used in some pharmaceutical production.

Industrial biotechnology and climate change

The relationship between industrial biotechnology and climate change cuts across three major spheres of climate change science and policy: impacts, mitigation, and adaptation. The impacts of a changing climate on agriculture and land use will affect the availability of biomass and food production. Populations of developing countries will suffer disproportionately, especially since some of the regions that may be most negatively affected are part of small island states and in already impoverished areas of sub-Saharan Africa. With respect to mitigation, the expansion of industrial biotechnology can offer new opportunities for fossil fuel substitution and carbon sequestration. If genetic modification is employed, the linkages to both mitigation and adaptation would be even more direct. A given crop might be adjusted so as to yield better characteristics for energy production (e.g. more fibre, faster growth, less lignin). With respect to adaptation, varieties might be developed that require less water or are otherwise more suited to the new climate. Biomass and industrial biotechnology can address greenhouse gas emissions while at the same time providing a more sustainable foundation for the developing world‘s transition from an agrarian to an industrial economy.

Novel implementation platforms and identification of existing technologies that are under-utilised or inefficiently utilised will generally be

122

preferred to developing new technologies, particularly in smaller and/or poorer developing countries.

The following options could be considered:

Improving the efficiency of biomass to energy conversion (e.g. advanced cogeneration, biomass gasification)

Creating biomass resource options from agricultural or process wastes

Use of agricultural or process wastes as inputs to industrial processes

Substitution for products made from fossil sources (e.g. fertilisers, bioplastics)

The above options tend to have medium-to-large economies-of-scale. Alternatively, in the context of poverty reduction in rural areas, there may be a preference for options aimed at expanding energy services (e.g. biogas for cooking) and/or creating income-generating opportunities (e.g. small-scale agro-industrial plants). At the same time, smaller-scale options with many end-users require more effort for replication and dissemination, and thus entail higher transaction costs. Detailed analysis of impacts, adaptation, and enhanced sequestration are quite complicated and beyond the scope of this report. Mitigation options through the Kyoto mechanisms (Emissions Trading, Joint Implementation, and CDM) are of greatest near-term interest, not only because of the opportunities to obtain financial support, but also because expanded platforms for industrial biotechnology can address longterm sustainable development goals at the same time that they offer greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions. Since only Annex 1 parties have Kyoto obligations, Emissions Trading and JI are only indirectly related to developing country crediting via the linkages from GHG credits that are generated.

Industrial or white biotechnology uses enzymes and micro-organisms to make bio-based products in sectors such as chemicals, food and feed, detergents, paper and pulp, textiles and bioenergy (such as biofuels or biogas). In doing so, biotechnology uses renewable raw materials and is one of the most promising, innovative approaches towards lowering greenhouse gas emissions.

The application of industrial biotechnology has been proven to make quite significant contributions towards mitigating the impacts of climate change in these and other sectors. In addition to environmental benefits, biotechnology can improve industry performance and product value and, as the technology develops and matures, white biotechnology will yield more

123

viable solutions for our environment. These innovative solutions bring added benefits for both our climate and our economy.

Industrial biotechnology is based on renewable resources, can save energy in production processes, and can significantly reduce CO2 emissions. The impact that biotechnology has on industry is confirmed by scientific studies and reports, such as the OECD‘s report on the application of biotechnology to industrial sustainability and, most recently, by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) report on the potential of industrial biotechnology to cut CO2 emissions and help build a greener economy.

The WWF report concludes that the full climate change mitigation potential of biotechnology processes and bio-based products ranges from between one billion and 2.5 billion tons CO2 equivalent per year by 2030. This represents more than Germany‘s total reported emissions in 1990. Many low-carbon technologies are already available, and future innovations offer greater potential. Forward-thinking companies have already discovered the potential of biotechnology to cut greenhouse gas emissions.

However, in order to fully realise the potential of biotechnology it will be critical that international policy makers create a fully supportive biotechnology legislative framework.

Industrial biotechnology can be used to:

Create new products, such as plant-based biodegradable plastics;

Replace petroleum-based feedstocks by processing biomass using biorefineries to generate electricity, transport fuels or chemicals;

Modify and develop new industrial processes, such as by using enzymes to reduce the amount of harsh chemicals used in textiles and the pulp and paper industry;

Reduce the environmental impact of manufacturing; for example by treating industrial wastewater onsite using biological mediums such as microbes;

Provide energy savings by adding enzymes in detergents, allowing clothes to be washed in lower temperatures; and

Provide water savings through more efficient processes such as using enzymes to break down chemicals and reduce subsequent washing steps in the textile industry.

124

Industrial biotechnology is also a key enabling technology to realise a Bioeconomy, a sustainable economy that uses biological resources (such as biomass) as an input to industrial processes, and bio-based processes to help industries become more environmentally sustainable. A major driver for a Bioeconomy is the expected decrease in the global supply for cheap and easily extractable oil. A Bioeconomy could be expected to increase food security, reduce the environmental impact of agriculture and fisheries, and generate sustainable growth and jobs. Please see the Bioeconomy and Industrial Biotechnology page for more information.

TECHNOSPHERE SAFETY

The fourth basic speciality of the Physics and Chemical Engineering Faculty is Technosphere Safety.

Man‘s experience has proved that any newly created human activity must be useful for his existence. Yet, this activity may be a source of negative impact or harm, resulting in injury, illness and, in some cases, disability and death. Any human activity may be harmful: work in industries, various types of leisure, entertainment, and even the activity related to studies. Thus, human practice makes it valid that any activity is hazardous.

The axiom that any activity is hazardous is the base for the scientific problem, which deals with ensuring man‘s safety. This axiom has at least two important conclusions needful to form safety systems: it is impossible to develop (find) an absolutely safe man‘s activity (e.g. considering man‘s work in industries it is impossible to develop the absolutely safe equipment or process); no activity can ensure the absolute man‘s safety (zero risks are nonexistent).

Hazards are processes, phenomena, objects that have a negative impact on man‘s life and health.

All kinds of hazards (negative impacts) arising during labour are divided into the following groups: physical, chemical, biological and psychophysiological (social).

Hazardous and harmful physical factors: running vehicles and mechanisms; various handling equipment and transferred loads; unprotected running components of industrial equipment; flying particles of treated materials and tools; electric current; elevated temperature of equipment and treated materials; elevated or lowered air temperature in working areas; high humidity; excessive noises, ultrasounds and various radiations, etc.

125

Chemical hazardous and harmful industrial factors are divided into the following groups: of general toxicity; irritating; sensibilizing (causing allergies); cancerogenic (causing tumors); mutagenic (affecting the sexual cells of a body). This group includes various vapours and gases: vapours of benzene (benzol) and toluene; carbon oxide; sulphurous-acid anhydride; nitrogen oxides; aerosols of lead and other elements; toxic dusts, formed, for example, while cutting beryllium, leaden bronze, brass, and some plastics. This group also includes aggressive liquids (acids, alkalies) that may cause chemical burns of skin.

Biological hazardous and harmful industrial factors: micro-organisms (bacteria, viruses, etc.) and macro-organisms (plants and animals) whose impacts on workers cause injury or illness.

Psychophysiological hazardous and harmful industrial factors: physical strains (static and dynamic) and nervous-psychic strains (of mind, hearing, vision, etc.).

The operation of a modern industrial establishment, its main and auxiliary equipment, communications, sewage-works depend to a great extent on the personnel‘s correct and timely actions. What is more, our artificial environment - technosphere - which usually comprises objects, that make up an integral technical system, is in itself a source of emergencies, fires, blasts, and other dangers. 1996 alone saw 214518 persons injured in industrial accidents, 5425 of them died. The conclusion is evident: efficient measures are required to protect a man from the technosphere created by himself.

Comfortable labour conditions, safety and protection of human health is the top priority task for any industry and type of activity. On completion of studies at the Technosphere Safety speciality, students are awarded a degree of an engineer and are able to determine high(er)-technogene-risk zones; choose human protection systems as for particular kinds of technological processes and equipment; work out suggestions on updating technologies and reconstruction of industrial plants; carry out research on protection against harmful and dangerous factors on die basis of modern means and methods of safety; train safety personnel.

Education includes grounding in labour protection and studying the fundamentals of technological processes and equipment on the base of specialized chairs. It ensures good knowledge of modern production and provides a wide choice of careers:

Labour protection in manufacturing, steel and chemistry industries;

Jobs in state supervision and control of production safety;

126

Development of documentation on safety of technological processes and equipment;

Expertizing in safety matters;

Attesting and control of labour conditions;

Jobs as engineers in manufacturing, steel and chemistry industries.

In 2001 our University opened the Safety of Technological Processes and Production speciality which became an answer to the challenge put by the problem of production safety. In fact, human societies have developed through creation of new technologies directed at satisfying everincreasing needs, human safety being completely ignored although the last century has formulated an axiom of potential danger of any human activity.

21-st century, if not to become the last one in the history of mankind, should change the scheme of life, making safety of human activity a must (prerequisite) for survival.

So nowadays attention is high to education in the field of safety and risks, to professional skills of those who dedicate their life to protection and safety of society.

Scientists have been studying human safety in various conditions since ancient time. Aristotle and Hippocrates wrote about these problems in their works in the 300s B.C. Paracelse, Agricola and М. V. Lomonosov are the founding fathers of safety in mining. Academician Legasov and many other Russian scientists have greatly contributed to development of safety theory and worked out the concepts of means and ways of human protection.

At present safety problems require qualified specialists, true professionalism, which envisages profound studying of methods and means of analysis, danger forecasting, ability to design and use effective means and methods of protection as well as to run complex ergotechnical systems such as ―human being - machine - environment‖.

Today one of the major directions of state policy in labour protection is training specialists, possessing a unique range of law, economics and technical knowledge related to industrial safety control (managers‘ risk).

Studying the fundamentals of technological processes, industrial equipment, human physiology, industrial ecology, ergonomics, design and law gives good knowledge of modem industries and provides wide career opportunities:

127

All hierarchy of positions in industrial safety departments; Technical inspection of state-municipal technical supervision;

Jobs in private firms rendering services of system safety and labour protection;

Scientific research in the field of technogene risk and technological safety control.

Try to memorize the words and word-combinations listed below: