- •The 2 branches of Grammar, their interconnection. Links of Grammar with other branches of Linguistics.
- •Hierarchic structure of language. Segmental and supra-segmental levels.
- •The plane of content and the plane of expression. Polysemy, homonymy, synonymy. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. Language and speech.
- •4. Notion of the morpheme. Types of morpheme. Suffixes and inflexions. Types of word-form derivation.
- •Morpheme
- •In the tradition of the English school, grammatical inflexions are commonly referred to as suffixes.
- •Distributional analysis in studying morphemes. Types of distribution. Distributional morpheme types. Morphemic structure of the word
- •Allo-emic theory
- •On the basis of the degree of self-dependence
- •Ex: handful, hand – free morpheme, ful – a bound morpheme On the basis of formal presentation
- •On the basis of the segmental relation
- •On the basis of grammatical alternation
- •On the basis of linear characteristic
- •6. Grammatical meaning, form, categories.
- •9. Textual Grammar
- •3 Basic assumptions of textual grammar:
- •3 Types of them:
- •10. Parts of Speech. The criteria applied in discriminating parts of speech. The problem of notional and structural parts of speech.
- •11. The field-theory approach to parts-of-speech classification. Classification of parts of speech in English. Ch. Fries’s classification.
- •12. The noun as a part of speech. The problem of the category of gender.
- •Ilyish: The Noun in me has only 2 grammatical categories: number & case. The existence of case appears to be doubtful & has to be carefully analyzed.
- •13. The category of number of the noun.
- •14. The problem of the category of case of the noun. Different case theories.
- •15. The article.
- •Is the article a word or a morpheme?
- •The door opened and the young man came in./The door opened and a young man came in.
- •16. The adjective. Degrees of comparison. Substantivization of adjectives. Adjectivization of nouns.
- •18.The Verb as a part of speech. Classifications of the verb.
- •19. The category of aspect of the verb
- •E.G. We heard the leaves above our heads rustling in the wind.
- •Transposition
- •E.G. Miss Tillings said you were always talking as if it had been some funny business about me.
- •In the expressions of anticipated future (reverse transposition)
- •20. Composite sentence.
- •Compound sentence.
- •21. The Principal Parts of the Sentence: The Subject and the Predicate. Types of Predicate.
- •Compound
- •22. The Adverb and the Structural Parts Of Speech: Prepositions, Conjunctions, Particles, Modal Words, Interjections.
- •1) Nominal
- •2) Pronominal
- •25. The category of tense of the verb. The problem of perfect forms.
- •26. The Complex Sentence.
- •27. The category of mood of the verb
- •28. The Category of Voice
- •29. The Phrase, its definition. H. Sweet’s, e. Kruisinga’s, and o. Jespersen’s theories of the phrase.
- •3) Subordination implies the relation of head-word and adjunct-word. But there are degrees of subordination.
- •32. Notion of the sentence. Classification of sentences. Types of sentences.
- •34. The secondary parts of the sentence
- •35. Participle 2
3 Types of them:
Certain adverbs which may at other times also function as modifiers of lesser structures
They are rather numerous
Accordingly
Also
Before
Later (on)
Then, there, thus, too…
Usually come at or near the beginning of the sentence and are intonationally aet off from the rest of the sentences.
A group of special sentence-linking function words call “conjunctive adverbs” in the traditional grammar
Furthermore
However
Moreover
Nevertheless
Their only function is to link sentences. Some linguists call them sentence-linkers
Various prepositional phrases, many of them stereotyped
Function just like sentence-linkers
At least
In the next place
In contrast
For example, as a result, in addition…
10. Parts of Speech. The criteria applied in discriminating parts of speech. The problem of notional and structural parts of speech.
The words of language, depending on various formal and semantic features, are divided into grammatically relevant sets of classes. The traditional grammatical classes of words are called “parts of speech”.
It should be noted that the term “parts of speech” is purely traditional and conventional, it cannot be taken as in any way defining or explanatory.
In modern linguistics, parts of speech are discriminated on the basis of the three criteria: “semantic”, “formal”, and “functional”. The semantic criterion presupposes the evaluation of the generalized meaning, which is characteristic of all subsets of words constituting a given part of speech. This meaning is understood as the “categorical meaning of the part of speech”. The formal criterion provides for the exposition of the specific inflexional and derivational (word-building) features of all the lexemic subsets of a part of speech. The functional criterion concerns the syntactic role of words in the sentence typical of a part of speech. The said three factors of categorical characterization of words are conventionally referred to as, respectively, “meaning”, “form”, and “function”.
In accord with the described criteria, words of the upper level of classification are divided into notional and functional, which reflects their division in the earlier grammatical tradition into changeable and unchangeable.
Notional parts of speech unite the words of complete nominative meaning characterized by self-dependent functions in the sentence.
To the notional parts of speech of the English language belong:
The noun
The adjective
The numeral
The pronoun
The verb
The adverb
THE FEATURES: BLOKH - p.38-39
Contrasted against the notional parts of speech are words of incomplete nominative meaning and non-self-dependent, mediatory functions in the sentence. There are functional parts of speech:
The article
The preposition
The conjunction
The particle
The modal word
The interjection
THE FEATURES: BLOKH, p.39
Each part of speech after its identification is further subdivided into subseries in accord with various particular semantico-functional and formal features of the constituent words. This subdivision is sometimes called “subcategorization” of parts of speech:
Nouns:
Proper - common
animate - inanimate
countable - uncountable
concrete – abstract etc…
Verbs:
fully predicative – partially predicative
transitive – intransitive
actional – statal
purely nominative – evaluative etc…
Adjectives:
qualitative – relative
of constant feature – temporary feature (statives)
factual – evaluative etc…
The Three-Layer Classification (M. BLOKH)
“names” (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs)
“substitutes of names” (pronouns, words of broad meaning – “matter”, numbers)
“specifiers of names” (determiners, prepositions, conjunctions, particles…)
+++++++++++++++++++++++
Traditional classification of words (dating back to ancient times) – 8 parts of speech: nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections.
Objections:
The definitions are largely notional and often extremely quite vague; e.g. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun (John came this morning – a man, someone, you-know-who, the aforementioned).
The number of parts of speech in the traditional grammars seems to be arbitrary. Why 8? Prof. Ilyish – 12 (+ numerals, statives, modal words and particles), prof. Khaimovich and Rogovskaya – 14 (+ articles and response words).
Thus, meaning can’t be the only criterion for classifying words. Compare:
The last train was at 7.
When did you last get a letter from her?
She was faithful to the last.
How long will the fine weather last?
That’s why to classify words we must take into consideration morphological characteristics of words. For instance, H.Sweet: declinables (nouns, adjectives, verbs) and indeclinables (adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections). One more classification (based on syntactic functions of word classes): noun-words (nouns, noun-numerals, noun-pronouns, Infinitives, Gerunds), adjective-words (adjectives, adjective-pronouns, adjective-numerals, Participles), verb-words (verbs, verbals).
O.Jespersen (his theory is between syntax and morphology):
substantives (including proper nouns)
adjectives (In some respect (1) and (2) may be classed together as nouns)
pronouns (including numerals and pronominal adverbs)
verbs (with doubts as to the inclusion of verbals)
particles (adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections) characterized negatively as made up of all those that cannot find any place in any of the first 4 classes.
J.Sledd: inflexional classes (nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives – based on inflexion, adverbs – based on derivation) and positional classes (4 main positional classes – nominals, verbals, adjectivals, adverbials – and 8 smaller positional classes – determiners, prepositions, conjunctions, relatives, interrogatives, intensive-reflexives, auxiliaries and adverbials of degree). He uses the method of substitution:
e.g. Cash/money/the money/the big money talks.
An adjective is usually an adjectival but it may be a nominal, etc.:
The poor boy became president. The poor can afford no vacations.
The strong points: 1) emphasis on inflexions as indicators of parts of speech 2) the idea of heterogeneity of word-classes.