- •The 2 branches of Grammar, their interconnection. Links of Grammar with other branches of Linguistics.
- •Hierarchic structure of language. Segmental and supra-segmental levels.
- •The plane of content and the plane of expression. Polysemy, homonymy, synonymy. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. Language and speech.
- •4. Notion of the morpheme. Types of morpheme. Suffixes and inflexions. Types of word-form derivation.
- •Morpheme
- •In the tradition of the English school, grammatical inflexions are commonly referred to as suffixes.
- •Distributional analysis in studying morphemes. Types of distribution. Distributional morpheme types. Morphemic structure of the word
- •Allo-emic theory
- •On the basis of the degree of self-dependence
- •Ex: handful, hand – free morpheme, ful – a bound morpheme On the basis of formal presentation
- •On the basis of the segmental relation
- •On the basis of grammatical alternation
- •On the basis of linear characteristic
- •6. Grammatical meaning, form, categories.
- •9. Textual Grammar
- •3 Basic assumptions of textual grammar:
- •3 Types of them:
- •10. Parts of Speech. The criteria applied in discriminating parts of speech. The problem of notional and structural parts of speech.
- •11. The field-theory approach to parts-of-speech classification. Classification of parts of speech in English. Ch. Fries’s classification.
- •12. The noun as a part of speech. The problem of the category of gender.
- •Ilyish: The Noun in me has only 2 grammatical categories: number & case. The existence of case appears to be doubtful & has to be carefully analyzed.
- •13. The category of number of the noun.
- •14. The problem of the category of case of the noun. Different case theories.
- •15. The article.
- •Is the article a word or a morpheme?
- •The door opened and the young man came in./The door opened and a young man came in.
- •16. The adjective. Degrees of comparison. Substantivization of adjectives. Adjectivization of nouns.
- •18.The Verb as a part of speech. Classifications of the verb.
- •19. The category of aspect of the verb
- •E.G. We heard the leaves above our heads rustling in the wind.
- •Transposition
- •E.G. Miss Tillings said you were always talking as if it had been some funny business about me.
- •In the expressions of anticipated future (reverse transposition)
- •20. Composite sentence.
- •Compound sentence.
- •21. The Principal Parts of the Sentence: The Subject and the Predicate. Types of Predicate.
- •Compound
- •22. The Adverb and the Structural Parts Of Speech: Prepositions, Conjunctions, Particles, Modal Words, Interjections.
- •1) Nominal
- •2) Pronominal
- •25. The category of tense of the verb. The problem of perfect forms.
- •26. The Complex Sentence.
- •27. The category of mood of the verb
- •28. The Category of Voice
- •29. The Phrase, its definition. H. Sweet’s, e. Kruisinga’s, and o. Jespersen’s theories of the phrase.
- •3) Subordination implies the relation of head-word and adjunct-word. But there are degrees of subordination.
- •32. Notion of the sentence. Classification of sentences. Types of sentences.
- •34. The secondary parts of the sentence
- •35. Participle 2
On the basis of the degree of self-dependence
“Free” morphemes can build up words by themselves, i.e. can be used “freely”.
“Bound” morphemes cannot form words by themselves, they are identified only as component segmental parts of words. There are very few productive bound morphemes in the morphological system of English, the list of them is complicated by the relations of homonymy. Ex.: the segments –(e)s [z, s, iz] plural of nouns, the possessive case of nouns, the 3rd person singular present of verbs. (Other examples on p. 25 brown textbook Bloch)
Ex: handful, hand – free morpheme, ful – a bound morpheme On the basis of formal presentation
“Overt” morphemes are genuine, explicit morphemes building up words
“Covert” morphemes are identifies as a contrastive absence of morpheme expressing a certain function. It coincides with the notion of zero morpheme
The usual symbol of the covert morpheme is the sign of the empty set:
The word clock consists of 2 morphemes: the overt root morpheme and the covert (implicit) grammatical suffix of the singular.
On the basis of the segmental relation
“Segmental” morphemes
“Supra-segmental” morphemes include intonation, accents, pauses
The said elements of language should beyond dispute be considered signemic units of language, since they are functionally bound. They form the secondary line of speech. These units are functionally connected not with morphemes, but with larger elements of language: words, word-groups, sentences, supra-sentential constructions.
On the basis of grammatical alternation
Additive morphemes are outer grammatical suffixes, opposed to the absece of morphemes in grammatical alternation
replacive morphemes replace one another in the paradigmatic forms
Ex.: dr-I-ve – dr-o-ve – dr-I-ven; m-a-n – m-en
On the basis of linear characteristic
Continuous morphemes – a two-element grammatical unit is meant which is identified in the auxiliary word and a grammatical suffix
Be ……..ing – continuous verb forms (is going)
Discontinuous morphemes – uninterruptedly expressed
Types of morphemes as determined by their distribution by Nida E:
Bound vs. Free
Bound forms include prefixes, suffixes, infixes, replacives and some roots. Free morphemes are those which can be uttered in isolation. They always consist of a root. Stems, which consist of a root or a root plus some other morpheme, are by definition always bound.
A distinction may be made between potentially free, actually free and bound morphemes.
Ex. The word boy is actually free in such an utterance as Boy!, but it is potentially free in such a word as boyish.
Roots vs. Nonroots
Roots constitute the nuclei of all words. There may be more than one root in a single word, and some roots may have unique occurrences, like –cran in the word cranberry. All other distributional types of morphemes constitute nonroots.
It is not always easy to distinguish between roots and nonroots. This is because some roots become nonroots and vice versa.
Ex.: the nonroot –ism in such words as fatalism, pragmatism, fascism has become a full root in the sentence I’m disgusted with all these isms.
Roots vs. Stems
All bound roots are stems, but not all stems are roots. A stem is composed of 1) the nucleus, consisting of one or more roots, or 2) the nucleus plus any other nonroot morphemes, except the last structurally added morpheme that results in a word
The form man- in manly is at the same time a root and a stem.
The form breakwater is the stem of breakwaters, but it is not a single root. There are two roots break and water.
Nuclei vs. Nonnuclei
The nucleus of a morphological construction consists of a root or a combination of roots. The nonnucleus is made up of nonroots. In the construction boyishness, boy is the nucleus and –ishness – nonnucleus.
Nuclear vs. peripheral
A nuclear structure consists of a nucleus, or constitutes the head of a subordinate endocentric construction. A peripheral morpheme usually consists of a nonroot and is always “outside” of the nuclear constituent. In the word formal, form- nuclear, al- peripheral
Closing vs. Nonclosing
Certain morphemes “close” the construction to further formation. Ex. In English the use of a genitive suffix closes the noun to further suffixation. No suffix follows the genitive.