Text 3: функции выборов

Так как существуют многие виды и различные системы вы­боров, всегда трудно делать обобщения (generalisation) о роли и функциях выборов. Однако, продвижение (promotion) демокра­тизации всегда ассоциируется с введением либерально-демократических выборных систем, характерными чертами ко­торых являются всеобщее избирательное право (universal, suffrage), тайное голосование (the secret ballot) и состязатель­ность (competitiveness/electoral competition).

Традиционно выборы рассматриваются как механизм, с по­мощью которого политиков призывают к ответу, и они вынуж­дены предлагать политические меры, учитывающие обществен­ное мнение- Эта точка зрения «снизу-вверх» (the bottom-up) от­ражает такие функции выборов как: отбор политиков, предста­вительство, осуществление правления, влияние на политику и т.п.

С другой стороны, радикальный взгляд на выборы рассмат­ривает их как средство, с помощью которого правительства и политические элиты могут осуществлять контроль над своим населением, делая их более послушными (quiescent) и управляе­мыми. Эта точка зрения «сверху-вниз» (the top-down) отмечает такие функции выборов как: установление легитимности, фор­мирование общественного мнения и укрепление элит.

В реальной жизни, однако, выборы, как и все каналы поли­тической коммуникации, являются «улицей с двусторонним движением», которая предоставляет правящим и управляемым, элите и массам возможность оказывать влияние друг на друга.

Ex. 15. Translate the text into Russian

TEXT 4: VOTING BEHAVIOUR. THEORIES OF VOTING:

Party-identification model

The earliest theory of voting behaviour, the party-identification model, is based on the sense of psychological attachment that people have to parties. Electors are seen as people who identify with a party, in the sense of being long-term supporters who regard the party as 'their' party. Voting is therefore a manifestation of partisanship, not a product of calculation influenced by factors such as policies, personalities, campaigning and media coverage. This model places heavy stress on early political socialisation, seeing the family as the principal means through which political loyalties are forged. These are then, in most cases reinforced by group membership and later social experiences.

In this model, attitudes towards policies and leaders, as well as perceptions about group and personal interests tend to be developed on the basis of party identification. Events are thus interpreted to fit with pre-existing loyalties and attachments. This partisan alignment tends to create stability and continuity, especially in terms of habitual patterns of voting behaviour, often sustained over a lifetime.

Sociological model

The sociological model links voting behaviour to group membership, suggesting that electors tend to adopt a voting pattern that reflects the economic and social position of the group to which (hey belong. Rather than developing a psychological attachment to a party on the basis of family influence, this mode] highlights the importance of a social alignment, reflecting the various divisions and tensions within society. The most significant of these divisions are

• Majoritarian systems are usually defended on the grounds that they offer the electorate a clear choice of potential governments, invest winning parties with a policy mandate, and help to promote strong and stable government. In contrast, proportional systems are defended on the grounds that they usually give government _____ .

class, gender, ethnicity, religion and region. Although the impact of socialisation is not irrelevant to this model, social-base explanations allow for rationality insofar as group interests may help to shape party allegiances. This has perhaps been clearest in relation to social class.

Not uncommonly, party systems have been seen to reflect the class system, with the middle classes providing the electoral base for right-wing parties, and the working classes providing the electoral base for left-wing parties.

Rational-choice model

Rational-choice models of voting shift attention onto the individual and away from socialisation and the behaviour of social groups. In this view, voting is seen as a rational act, in the sense that individual electors are believed to decide their party preferences on the basis of their own interests.

Dominant-ideology model

Radical theories of voting tend to highlight the degree to which individual choices are shaped by a process of ideological manipulation and control. In some respects, such theories resemble the sociological model in that voting is seen to reflect a person's position in a social hierarchy. Where these theories differ from the sociological model, however, is in emphasising that how groups and individuals interpret their position depends on how it has been presented to them through education, by the government, and, above all, by the mass media. As the impact of class on voting declines, party competition and political debate are increasingly influenced by the media.

In contrast to the earlier view that the mass media merely reinforce pre-existing preferences, this suggests that the media are able to distort the flow of political communications, both by setting the agenda for debate and structuring preferences and sympathies, The consequence of this is that, if voters' attitudes conform to thl tenets of a dominant ideology, parties will not be able to afford develop policies that fall outside that ideology. In this way, far fronl challenging the existing distribution of power and resources in society, the electoral process tends to uphold it. The weakness of t dominant-ideology model is that, by overstating the process of soc conditioning, it takes individual calculation and personal autonom out of the picture altogether. t

i

Ex. 16. What do you think?

• What is representation? How can one person 'represent' anothe

• How can representation be achieved in practice?

• What do elections do? What are their functions?

• How do electoral systems differ? What are their strengths and weaknesses?

• What do election results mean?

• Why do people vote as they do? How can electoral behaviour be explained?

Ex. 17. Complete each paragraph

SUMMARY

• Representation is a relationship in which an individual or group stands for, or acts on behalf of, a larger body of people. This may be achieved through , through

. through .

• In modern politics, representation is invariably linked with elections. Elections may not be a sufficient condition for political representation, but are certainly a necessary condition. For elections to serve representative purposes, however, they must be , and conducted on the basis of

• Elections have a variety of functions. On the one hand, they have 'bottom-up' functions, such as

„__^__„ . On the other hand, radical

theorists emphasise their 'top-down' functions, which include

• Electoral systems are often classified as either majoritarian systems or proportional systems. In majoritarian systems, _____ ____. In proportional systems,

Ex. 18. Comment on

'If elections changed anything they'd abolish it'. The title of the book by Ken Livingstone (1987)

'Class is the basis of British party politics; all else is

embellishment and detail'. Peter Pulzer (1967)

Like all channels of political communication, elections are a

'two-way street' that provides the government and the people,

the elite and the masses, with the opportunity to influence one

another.

UNIT 8 Parties and party systems

Text 1: Party politics PRE-READING activity:

Ex. 19. Questions for discussion

1. Is representation merely a substitute for democracy?

2. What conditions best promote representative government?

3. Are elections more significant in calling politicians to account, or in ensuring the survival of a regime?

4. Is there inevitably a trade-off between electoral fairness and strong and stable government?

5. How successful are elections in defining the public interest?

6. To what extent is voting behaviour a rational and issue-based activity?

♦ Learn the topical vocabulary and word combinations VOCABULARY:

1. to diffuse v - распространять, рассеивать, разбрасывать; diffusion n — распространение, рассеивание; diffuse a - раз­бросанный, рассеянный, многословный; diffusive а - рас­пространяющийся, рассеивающийся.

2. to integrate v — составлять целое, соединять; integrity п — полнота, целостность; честность, прямота; integrative а — объединенный.

3. to denote v — означать, показывать, указывать на ч-л (of sth.); denotation n - обозначение, знак, значение, denotative а - указывающий на (of), означающий.

4. to rely v — полагаться (на — on), доверять, reliance п — до­верие, уверенность (on, upon, in); phr - to have (to feel) reliance upon - питать доверие к кому-либо, reliability n — надежность, достоверность; reliable а — надежный, вызы­вающий доверие.

5. to recruit v - вербовать, принимать на работу, набирать (в армию, флот), пополнять свои ряды; recruitment п — набор (сотрудников, новобранцев), пополнение рядов; recruit п -новобранец, новый член (общества, клуба).

(>. to convince v — убедить, уверить (в ч-л — of); conviction n -убеждение; phr - to carry conviction — убеждать, быть убе­дительным; convinced (of) - убежденный, convincible a -поддающийся убеждению; convincing a — убедительный.

7 to reduce v — уменьшать, сокращать, ослаблять; phr — to reduce to silence — заставить замолчать; to reduce to order — привести в порядок; reduction n - уменьшение, сокраще­ние, снижение; phr - reduction of arms (armaments) - со­кращение вооружений; redundance - излишек.

8. to content v - удовлетворять; phr — to content oneself with — довольствоваться чем-либо; content n — довольство, чувство удовлетворения; phr — to one's heart's content — к своему полному удовольствию; content а — довольный (with), contented а — довольный.

by means of sth.

franchise

quasi

prevalence of such parties above all

to draw support (from)

to encompass sth

to render sth. redundant

WORDS AND WORD COMBINATIONS

посредством чего-либо право участвовать в выборах как будто, якобы, почти преобладание (господство) таких партий прежде всего получать поддержку содержать в себе, включать упразднить, сделать ненужным/лишним

• Work in pairs: Do you think the following statements are true or false?

• A party is a group of people that is organised for the purpose of winning elections by electoral means.

• Parties typically adopt a one issue focus, addressing one particular problem.

• Parties are united by a general ideological identity.

• A cadre party denotes trained and professional members.

• A mass party places heavier stress on ideology.

• Representative parties attempt to reflect rather than shape, public opinion.

• 'Rational choice' model of political behaviour is based on t 'catch-all' strategy.

• Parties of integration wish to mobilise, educate and inspire tha masses.

• Constitutional parties recognise that they can be voted out power as easily as they can be voted in.

• Revolutionary parties aim at overthrowing governments by constitutional means.

• The left-wing parties are characterised by a commitment to change.

• The right-wing parties generally uphold the existing social order.

• Discuss/check your considerations with the rest of the class.

SCAN reading: look through the text to find answers to the true/false statements