Text 1: political socialisation

Political attitudes and beliefs are 'acquired' through learning and social experience. The process through which this happens is usually called political socialisation. However, the idea of political socialisation has been subject to much dispute and criticism. Although everyone accepts that political attitudes and behaviour are in some way shaped by learning and by the broader social environment, there is fierce disagreement about how this process occurs and what its political significance might be.

Interest in the socialisation process arises from two very different sources. Radicals and Marxists have long emphasised the degree to which the ideas of a 'ruling' or economically dominant class pervade society, encouraging subordinate classes to accept the existing distribution of wealth and resources. This is political socialisation as ideological domination. In this view, the socialisation process is seen as essentially conscious or deliberate. It amounts, in its crudest form, to a process of indoctrination that takes place throughout a person's life and is carried out by institutions such as the media and the state. Conventional political scientists, however, influenced by the picture of human nature as essentially malleable, look to the social environment to explain individual and group behaviour. Socialisation, from this perspective, is typically unplanned and informal; it operates largely through the agency of the family, and shapes individuals during childhood when the human organism is a 'black box' waiting to be filled. Political socialisation is therefore portrayed as the transmission of values and beliefs from one generation to the next in the interests of social cohesion and political stability, rather than in the cause of economic subordination.

Enthusiasm about political socialisation has dimmed since the 1960s, in part because it has proved frustratingly difficult to demonstrate empirically how the process works. Empirical political scientists have, at best, been able to establish correlations between particular social factors and specific forms of political behaviour, for instance, between social class and voting behaviour. Although this may enable predictions to be made (in this case about the outcome of elections), it does not amount to an explanation how or why it exerts an influence. The limitation of theories of political socialisation is therefore that they fail to take account of personality and individual experience. For good or ill, human beings are not simply robots programmed by their social environment to behave as instructed.

A further problem is that there is no reason to assume that the various social agents (family, school, religion, media, government and so on) are part of an interlinked process that tends to produce a homogeneous political culture. The impact of the various agents of socialisation, as well as the attitudes and values they impart, vary from society to society and over time. The influence of these agents is notoriously difficult to quantify because the context they provide is often as important as the content of the message they transmit.

The family is often seen as the agent that accomplishes 'primary' socialisation, providing individuals, in late childhood and adolescence in particular, with a framework of political sympathies and leanings that adult experience may modify or deepen, but seldom radically transform.

The significance of education results from the susceptibility of the young, unformed and impressionable, to external influences and pressures.

Religion may have declined in significance with the advance of secularisation, but, in certain parts of the world, has acquired renewed importance through the emergence of fundamentalist sects and movements. This has been especially evident in the case of political Islam.

As most political information is now disseminated by television, radio, newspapers and magazines, much of the modem debate about socialisation focuses on the role of the mass media. When the communications system is subject to formal political control, as in slates of socialist, fascist or authoritarian regimes, the media become liitle more than a propaganda machine. Nevertheless, despite their formal independence from government and the existence of pluralism and debate, both left-wing and right-wing critics have argued that the liheral-democratic media convey a more subtle but no less effective political message.

Government is inevitably an agent of political socialisation. Some governments explicitly acknowledge this as a key task. Although in democratic states such ambitions are constrained by constitutional devices and party competition, all governments recognise that their capacity to remain in power depends, in part, on their ability to construct a value system that commands broad popular support.

AFTER-READING activity

* Read the text in more depth to do the 'After-reading exercises'.

l'A. I. Comprehension questions

I What process results in political socialisation?

What is the disagreement about political socialisation focused on?

3. What is the position of Radicals and Marxists on the issue?

4. How does their position differ from that of the conventional political scientists?

5. Is political socialisation formed through transition of values and beliefs or in the cause of economic subordination?

6. What accounts for dimming enthusiasm about political socialisation?

7. What is the impact of various agents of socialisation?

8. What explains the difficulty of quantifying the influence of these agents?

9. What is the difference between a propaganda of authoritarian states and an effective political message of liberal democracies?

10. What guarantees governments' capacity to remain in power?

Ex. 2. Terminology/Concepts

A. Learn the terminology:

Political socialisation — политическая социализация Propaganda - пропаганда (навязывание взглядов, идей) Political culture — политическая культура, традиция Bourgeois ideology — буржуазная идеология Hegemony — гегемония

B. Match the notions with the definitions:

• ... is the 'pattern of orientations' to political objects such as. parties, government, the constitution, expressed in beliefs,, symbols and values.

• ... is a Marxist term, denoting ideas and theories that serve the interests of the bourgeoisie by disguising the contradictions of capitalist society.

• ... is the process through which individuals acquire political beliefs and values, and by which these are transmitted from generation to generation.

• ... is domination of one element of a system over others.

■ ... is information disseminated in a deliberate attempt to shape opinions and, possibly, stimulate political action; commu­nication as manipulation.

♦ Work with the dictionary and consult the text to do exer­cises 3, 4

Ex. 3. Translate from English into Russian

The ideas of a 'raling' or economically dominant class pervade society; subordinate classes; to accept the existing distribution of wealth and resources; it amounts in its crudest form to a process of indoctrination; conventional political scientists; to take account of personality and individual experience; for good or ill; a homogeneous political culture; to impart attitudes and values; to quantify the influence; the advance of secularization, a system that commands broad popular support.

Ex. 4. Translate from Russian into English

Острые разногласия; политическая значимость; подчеркнуть что-либо; с этой точки зрения; природа человека по сути своей несовершенна; передача ценностей и убеждений от одного по­коления другому; экономическая зависимость; интерес к этому нопросу упал; делать предсказания; результаты выборов; оказы­вать влияние; передавать сообщения; первичная (начальная) со­циализация; в позднем детском и подростковом возрасте; изме­нить и углубить; восприимчивость молодежи; быть очевидным; распространять политические новости; критики левого и пра­вого крыла; открыто признавать что-либо.

Кх. 5. Fill in the blanks with the topical vocabulary units given below

I The UN member - states commit themselves to ... all the

provisions of the UN Charter. .\ Political socialisation helps to ... political attitudes and ... views

on a wide range of problems. ' The idea of political socialisation has been ... sharp criticism. I Political socialisation as ideological domination ... a process of

indoctrination.

There's no doubt that political socialisation ... from learning and

social experience, (i His sudden refusal ... all our plans, his decision was absolutely

... to what we had expected. ' The UN Security Council ... the primary responsibility for

protecting world peace, s The impact of the various agents of socialisation ... from society

to society.

9. The government should ... in its economic policy to overcome the economic crisis the country is facing.

10. Political scientists ... of the family's role as the agent that ... 'primary' socialisation.

11. Newspapers, television and radio are known as ... whose task is ... information to people.

12. In democratic societies political ambitions ... by constitutional devices and party competition.

a.	to acquire, to shape
b.	subject to
c.	accomplishment of
d.	to arise
e.	to frustrate, varied
f.	to amount to
g-	to assume
h.	to make transformations
i.	to be conscious of sth, to accomplish
J-	to vary
k.	to constrain
1.	mass media, to convey.

Ex. 6. Fill in the blanks with either asocial! or !pjiMk!

1. Political scientists, influenced by the picture of human nature as essentially malleable, look to the ... environment to explain individual and group behaviour.

2. Political socialisation is portrayed as transmission of values and beliefs from one generation to the next in the interests of ... cohesion.

3. The commonest air pollution comes from smoke which pollutes many ... places.

4. Most scientists became outstanding speakers at numerous ... meetings which were part of their ... life.

5. The Romans made bathing an elaborate ... occasion.

6. Every land has its own ... customs.

7. Economic growth of a country is connected with its ... system.

8. The committee worked out the draft of ... reforms,

9. Political science is taught in some ... schools in Great Britain, they prepare the children of very wealthy parents from upper classes to take high ... positions after graduation.

10. Political scientists are able to establish correlation between particular ... factors and specific forms of political behaviour, between ... class and voting behaviour.

Ex. 7. Use properly: 'ужу.\ 'variety', 'xarioiis', varied', variable', 'varying*

1. A ... of books on political science was displayed in the shop-window.

2. Opinions on the role of the political parties were extremely ...

3. The debates went on with ... success, neither of the candidates gained superiority over his rival.

4. The tennis competition was reported to be put off due to the ... weather.

5. Interest in the socialisation process arises from a ... of sources.

6. Due to the ... proposals made in the closing session the opinions of the delegates on the final resolution ...

7. The economy can hardly be characterised as stable at the moment, for the prices are ...

8. Both left-wing and right-wing critics demonstrated ... of opinions on the same provision of the draft.

Ex. 8. Look through the text again

л. To compile a list of international lexicon.

it. Consult the dictionary to bring out all the meanings of the following words: тшкгл, reason, sympathy, interests, enthusiasm, conventional, conventionis). to operate, to demonstrate, to subordinate. Make sentences with them.

( . Translate into English, using: enthusiasm, sjificifk, formaL machine, agent, from this perspective, through the agency of. magazine.

I. С 1960 года интерес к процессу социализации падает час­тично потому, что оказалось обескураживающе трудно по­казать на практике, как он работает.

.'. Исследователям-практикам удалось лишь установить соот­ношение между отдельными социальными факторами и конкретными формами политического поведения.

1 Когда СМИ подвергаются официальному политическому контролю, то они превращаются не во что иное, как в пропагандистский аппарат.

1 Семья часто рассматривается как институт, в котором учат основам социализации.

¹ В этом свете социализация носит неофициальный характер и осуществляется благодаря посредничеству семьи.

6. Так как большая часть политической информации сейчас распространяется телевидением, радио, газетами и журна­лами, нынешние дебаты о социализации уделяют основное внимание роли СМИ.

Ёх. 9. Fill in the gaps with 'popular', 'political' and 'polities'. Translate the text into Russian

Almond¹ and Verba² set out to identity the ... culture that most effectively upheld democratic. ... They identified three general types of ... culture: participant culture, subject culture and parochial culture.

A participant... culture is one in which citizens pay close attention to ... and regard ... participation as both desirable and effective. A subject... culture is characterised by more passivity amongst citizens, and the recognition that they have only a very limited capacity to influence government. A parochial... culture is marked by the absence of a sense of citizenship, with people identifying themselves with their locality rather than the nation, and having neither the desire nor the ability to participate in. ... Although Almond and Verba accepted that a participant culture came closest to the democratic ideal, they argued that the 'civic culture' is a blend of all three in that it reconciles the participation of citizens in the ... process with the vital necessity for government to govern. Democratic stability, in their view, is underpinned by a ... culture that is characterised by a blend of activity and passivity on the part of citizens, and a balance between obligation and performance on the part of government.

Ex. 10. Translate into Russian, watch the meaning of the verb 'can' ('could')

1. A democratic government can be given to any people, but not every people c_ maintain it.

2. Governments that are seen as legitimate сад usually maintain order and pursue tough policies, albeit slowly, by building coalitions.

3. Power accumulated to do good can be used to do ill.

4. The American system is based on a pessimistic conception of human nature, assuming that people q____ be trusted with power.

5. Many eighteenth- and nineteenth-century liberals saw in democracy a force that could undermine liberty.

6. Over the long run, popular sovereignty cj_u_ hardly fail to lead to popular government.

7. How often can elections themselves be cited as the cause of problems that could not have been just as likely to arise under a nonelected government?

s. Who could have thought that his plans would be frustrated in no time?

9. He can't have failed to acquire these skills. He had been trained for so long.

10. Can they have failed to convey the information in time?

11. Illiberal democracy is a growth industry. Several years ago only 22 percent of democratising countries could have been so categorised; five years ago that figure had risen to 35 percent.

Kx. 11. Paraphrase the following sentences, using «can (could)*

I. It is impossible that he should have acquired so much popularity

within such a short period of time, .1. Is it possible that they should have accomplished the work by

the end of the month? i. I don't believe that their policy was subject to so much

criticism.

■1. It's unlikely that he should have been denied what he had a right to.

\ It is unbelievable that mass media should have done nothing to

convey this information, d. Is it possible that the Committee should have approved of this

policy despite our objections? 7 It's very doubtful that they should have fulfilled all their

electoral promises, x Are they still arguing?

'» Is it possible that their opinions should be so varied? 10 It is unbelievable that their policy is based only on the outdated principles.

I\. 12. Open the brackets, adding modal verbs according to the meaning

I The rise of religious fundamentalism in recent years within the Christian, Jewish, and Muslim traditions (to threaten).

' The «mass» character of the mass media (to derive) from the fact that mass media channel communication towards a large audience, using highly advanced technology.

3. The economic accomplishments of other newly industrializing countries in Asia following on the example of Japan (to be) now a familiar story.

4. The mere existence of communist China (to create) an alternative pole of ideological attraction, and as such constituted a threat to liberalism.

5. If we assume for the moment that fascist and communist challenges to liberalism are dead, (there to arise) other ideological competitors?

6. The Prime minister (to assume) full responsibility for the failed policy for he handed in his resignation.

7. Asia (to become) a battleground for a variety of imported Western ideologies early last century.

8. Nobody (to make) me believe that it was a frustrating method.

9. Western capitalism and political liberalism when transplanted to Japan (to adapt and to transform) by the Japanese in such a way as to become frustratingly unrecognisable.

10. Modern liberalism was historically a consequence of the weakness of religiously-based societies which, failing to agree on the nature of the good life, (not to provide) even the minimal preconditions of peace and stability,

11. The vast majority of the world's nationalistic movements do not have a political program beyond the negative desire of independence from other group or people, and (not to offer) anything like a comprehensive agenda for socio-economic organization.

12. Some observers of international relations assume that aggression and insecurity (to view) as universal characteristics of human societies rather than the product of specific historical circumstances.

Ex. 13. Translate the sentences into English, using modal verbs and the topical vocabulary

1. Неужели кандидат не выполнил своих предвыборных обе­щаний?

2. Не может быть, чтобы его программа была подвергнута резкой критике. Ее положения очень актуальны.

3. Прошло так много лет с тех пор, как я был в родном горо­де. Попжно быть, он стал неузнаваемым.

4. Кто бы мог подумать, что между партийными лидерами возникнет полное непонимание?

5. Не может быть, чтобы СМИ еще не сообщили никаких сведений об этом конфликте.

6. Должно быть он приобрел хорошие знания по политоло­гии, обучаясь в университете.

7. Неужели вы не осознаете, что наши точки зрения абсо­лютно различны?

8. Вам не следовало брать на себя обязательства, если вы не были готовы их выполнять.

9. Ему не пришлось изменять основные положения своего доклада. Большинство членов Комитета согласились с ним,

10. Не может быть, чтобы им не удалось разработать свою программу раньше других партий.

Ex. 14. Translate into Russian, paying attention to different meanings of 'AS'

1. Interest amongst political scientists in the idea of political culture emerged in the 1950s and 1960s as new techniques of behavioural analysis (opinion surveys) displaced more traditional approaches to the subject.

2. As most political information is now disseminated by television, radio, newspapers and magazines, much of the modem debate focuses on the role of the mass media.

V The advantage of the legal-rational authority over both traditional and charismatic one is that, as it is attached to an office rather than a person, it is far less likely to be abused.

4. The impact of the various agents of socialisatioiv_as sell as the attitudes and values they impact, vary from society to society and over time. (The word order in translation is not changed).

y The mandate doctrine provides a means of imposing some kind of meaning on election results, as well as a way of keeping politicians to their word.

0. The democratic process has led to escalating demands for social welfare as well as for increased popular participation and social equality. (The word order in translation is changed).

1. A government that is a microcosm of society would reflect that society's weaknesses as well as its strength.

N After the war, it seemed to most people that German fascism, as well as its other European and Asian variants were bound to self-destruct.

'> The influence of these agents is difficult to quantify because the

context they provide is often as important as the content of the

message the transmit. Ii) This system of classification tells us little about circumstances in

which political authority is challenged as a result of unpopular

policies.

11. This theory tended in practice to be employed as an ideology of modernisation and industrialisation that was particularly attractive to developing countries.

12. A state can withstand any amount of internal pressure as long as it possesses the coercive power to maintain control and political will to employ it.

13. The state is liberal insofar as it recognises and protects through a system of law man's universal right to freedom, and democratic insofar as it exists only with the consent of the governed.

14. This doctrine is based on a highly questionable model of voting behaviour, insofar as it suggests that voters select parties on the ground of policies and issues,

15. Hegel was the first philosopher to speak the language of modern social science, insofar as man for him was the product of his concrete historical and social environment and not ... a collection of more or less fixed 'natural' attributes.

16. Election results may reflect not so much the interests of the mass of voters as the resources and finances available to the competing parties.

17. When citizens vote, they do not so much make the decisions that structure their own lives as choose who will make those decisions on their behalf.

18. Whereas the power-elite model portrays the elite as a cohesive body competitive elitism highlights the significance of elite rivalry.

19. Whereas other competitive party systems have their supporters, or at least apologists, few are prepared to come to the defence of the dominant-party system.

20. Whereas broad programmic parties once succeeded in articulating the goals of major sections of the electorate, issues such as gender equality, nuclear power, animal rights and pollution may require new and different political formations to articulate them.

Ex. 15. Translate into English