Согласование времен

(THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES)

Согласование времен – это определенная зависимость времени глагола в придаточном предложении от времени глагола в главном предложении. Если глагол в главном предложении выражен в одной из форм прошедшего времени, то прошедшее время (или будущее в прошедшем) должно быть использовано в придаточном предложении.

Правила согласования времен

(RULES OF THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES)

RULE	EXAMPLES
1. Для выражения действия одновременного с действием в главном предложении употребляется прошедшее неопределенное время (the Past Indefinite) или прошедшее продолженное время (the Past Continuous).	Nobody knew what he meant. Никто не знал, что он имеет в виду. He had never guessed what she was doing. Он никогда не догадывался, что она делает.
2. Для выражения действия предшествующего действию в главном предложении употребляется прошедшее совершенное время (the Past Perfect).	I knew that he had passed his exams successfully. Я знал, что он сдал экзамены успешно.
3. Для выражения действия, которое последует за действием в главном предложении, употребляется особое время, которое называется будущее в прошедшем (Future in the Past). Оно образуется с помощью вспомогате-льных глаголов would/ should для первого лица единственного и множественного числа и would для всех остальных лиц.	He knew that she would take part in the conference. Он знал, что она примет участие в конференции.

Правило согласования времен не соблюдается, если в придаточном предложении выражается общепризнанная истина:

The students knew that water consists of oxygen and hydrogen.

Согласование времен также не соблюдается, если в придаточном предложении выражено обычное, привычное или характерное действие:

He asked the guard what time the train usually starts.

Косвенная речь

(INDIRECT SPEECH)

	RULE	EXAMPLES
КОСВЕННЫЕ УТВЕРЖДЕНИЯ (Indirect statements)	При переводе в косвен-ную речь утвердительных и отрицательных предло-жений используется that, который может опускать-ся. Косвенные утверждения вводятся глаголами to say, to tell, to announce, to inform, to promise, to remark и др. С глаголами to tell и to inform указы-вается лицо, к которому адресовано действие. С глаголами to say и to announce лицо может не упоминаться. Глагол to say используется для вве-дения как прямой, как и косвенной речи. Глагол to tell используется только в косвенной речи.	She said to us, “I am going to buy a new computer.” She said (told us) that she was going to buy a new computer. He said to them, “You’ll have a test tomorrow”. He informed them that they would have a test.
КОСВЕННЫЕ ВОПРОСЫ (Indirect Questions)	Косвенные вопросы вводятся с помощью глагола to ask. При переводе в косвен-ную речь общих вопросов используются союзы if или whether. При переводе в косвен-ную речь специальных вопросов используется вопросительное слово специального вопроса. В вопросах в косвенной речи соблюдается прямой порядок слов, однако если прямой вопрос к подле-жащему содержит глагол to be, то прямой порядок слов в косвенном вопросе не всегда соблюдается:	He asked me, “Did you send her e-mail?” He asked me if (whether) I had sent her e-mail. He asked me, “How long does it take to do this work?” He asked me how long it took to do this work. He asked, “Who is that man?” He asked who the man was. He asked who was the man.
КОСВЕННЫЕ ПРОСЬБЫ И ПРИКАЗЫ (Indirect requests and orders)	Просьба или приказы вводятся в косвенную речь с помощью глаголов to ask, to order, to tell и передаются при помощи инфинитива смыслового глагола.	She said to him, “Open the window.” She told him to open the window.

Если глагол в главном предложении стоит в прошедшем времени, то при переводе в косвенную речь время в придаточном предложении изменяется по правилам согласования времен.

При переводе в косвенную речь прошедшее продолженное время (the Past Continuous) и прошедшее совершенное время (the Past Perfect) не изменяются:

She said, “I was writing a report at 5 p.m.”.

She said she was writing a report at 5 p.m.

She said, “We had written the test by 5 o’clock”.

She said that they had written the test by 5 o’clock.

Если прошедшее неопределенное время (the Past Indefinite) в прямой речи обозначает действие, произошедшее в определенный момент, то в косвенной речи это время не изменяется:

He said, ”Her friend graduated from the University in 1999”.

He said that her friend graduated from the University in 1999.

Must не изменяется в косвенной речи, если выражает предположение или совет, граничащий с приказом:

She said to him, “You must be more careful” (совет).

She told him he must be more careful.

She said, “You must be very fond of mathematics if you buy a lot

of books (предположение).

She said he must be very fond of mathematics if he bought a lot of

books.

Must заменяется на had to в косвенной речи, если выражает необходимость совершения действия, обусловленную обстоятельствами.

She said, “I must get up early every morning”.

She said she had to get up early every morning.

Must заменяется на was to в косвенной речи, если в прямой речи выражает предварительную согласованность, запланированность действия.

She said, “I must ring him up at 2 o’clock”.

She said she was to ring him up at 2 o’clock.

EXERCISES

1. Translate into Russian.

1. He says that he lives in London. 2. He says that he lived in London. 3. He said that he lived in London. 4. He said that he had lived in London. 5. He said that he would live in London. 6. He said that she might live in London. 7. He said that she might have lived in London. 8. He says that he is leaving for London. 9. He said that he was leaving for London. 10. I am sure that he always keeps his promise. 11. I am sure that he will keep his promise.12. I was sure that he would keep his promise. 13. I am sure that he must keep his promise. 14. I was sure that he had to keep his promise. 15. I am sure that he can keep his promise. 16. I was sure that he could keep his promise. 17. Were you sure that he had kept his promise? 18. He said that she might keep her promise. 19. He said that she might have kept her promise. 20. He says that she may keep her promise. 21. He says that she may have kept her promise.

2. Change the main clause to the past and make necessary changes in the subordinate clause.

1. He says that he will finish the project in May. 2. He says that he must finish the project in May. 3. He says that he can finish the project in May. 4. He says that he finished the project in May. 5. He thinks she is going to win the award. 6. I hear that you’re your friend has accepted a proposal. 7. The student is asking the professor when the class will have a test. 8. The professor says that we must look through the whole article. 9. Mary says that he may be at the lecture. 10. Mary says that he may have been at the lecture. 11. He says that he is busy. 12. He says that he was busy. 13. He thinks that the article will be much spoken about. 14. He says that the article is much spoken about. 16. He says that the article was much spoken about. 17. He says that the article is still being much spoken about.

3. Practice the following according to the pattern.

Pattern: He studies mathematics.

What did he (she) say?

He (She) said that he studied mathematics.

1. I hope to pass the examination. 2. We are looked at. 3. I have never been to Great Britain. 4. I made no mistakes in the last test. 5. I haven’t read many English books. 6. I didn’t send e-mail. 7. My friend is good at mathematics. 8. I don’t feel tired. 9. My friend is a brilliant student. 10. I haven’t seen her for a long time. 11. My friend goes to bed early. 12. I shall read for my credit-test in English. 13. I’ll be present at the lecture. 14. I’ll make notes of the lecture. 15. I am never late for the classes. 16. I must go now. 17. You may stay if you like. 18. I can’t hear what the lecturer is saying. 19. You must be more attentive at the lesson. 20. Don’t interrupt me. 21. Don’t be late. 22. Give me your dictionary, please.

4. Practice the following according to the pattern.

Pattern: Where do you live?

What did he (she) ask?

He (She) asked where you lived.

1. What’s the time? 2. Do you speak English? 3. How old are you? 4. Are you a first-year student? 5. Have you passed your exams? 6. How much time does it take you to get to the University? 7. What are you doing? 8. Who discovered the X-rays? 9. Do you come to the University on foot? 10. Where are you going to spend your holidays? 11. Have you got a computer? 12. Who invented the computer? 13. Where have you been? 14. How many months does the term last? 15. What place are you from? 16. Did you come in time? 7. What are your parents? 8. Can you compile programs? 9. Are you tired? 10. Have you attended the yesterday’s lecture? 11. Why did you miss the lecture? 12. Are you busy?

TEXT

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

The instructions must be written according to a set of rules. These rules are the foundation of a programming language. A programming language must convey the logical steps of the program plan in such a way that the control unit of the CPU can interpret and follow the instructions.

There are a lot of programming languages. The most common of them are COBOL, FORTRAN, PL/I, RPG, BASIC, PASCAL.

COBOL was the most widely used business-oriented programming language. Its name is an acronym for Common Business-Oriented Language. It was designed to solve problems that are oriented toward data handling and input-output operations. COBOL can perform arithmetic operations as well, but its greatest flexibility is data handling. COBOL was also designed as a self-documenting language. Self-documenting languages are those that do not require a great deal of explanation in order to be understood by someone reading the program instructions. The self-documenting aspect of COBOL is made possible by its sentencelike structure and maximum symbolic field-name length of 30 characters. With a field-name length to 30 characters, the name can clearly identify the field and its purpose.

The FORTRAN IV language is oriented toward solving problems of mathematical nature. The name FORTRAN comes from the combination of the words formula translation. The version of FORTRAN IV was designed as algebra-based programming language. Any formula or those mathematical relationships that can be expressed algebraically can easily be expressed as a FORTRAN instruction. FORTRAN is the most commonly used language for scientific applications.

PL/I stands for Programming Language. It was designed as a general-purpose language incorporating features similar to COBOL for data handling instructions and features similar to FORTRAN for mathematical instructions. PL/I is much more than a combination of the good features of both COBOL and FORTRAN, as it has many capabilities that are unique. Yet, although PL/I is one of the most versatile and the most powerful of the programming languages, it is not the most commonly used.

RPG II is a business-oriented language. The name stands for report program generator. RPG is considerably different from other programming languages. It is a large prewritten program. The programmer simply indicates the options within the master program that are to be used. The latest version of RPG called RPG II greatly improved the language and gave it additional capabilities. RPG has advantage over COBOL as it requires less training for a programmer.

BASIC is an acronym for beginner’s all-purpose symbolic instruction code. It was developed in Dartmouth College as an easy-to-learn programming language for students and inexperienced programmers. Its key design goal is simplicity. BASIC has become a very popular language in systems where many users share the use of a computer through terminals and it has become a universal language for personal computers.

PASCAL was invented in 1970 by Professor Niklaus Wirth of Zurich, Switzerland. It was named after the mathematician Braise Paskal, who invented one of the earliest practical calculators. PASCAL is a mathematically oriented programming language and, as such, is most commonly used in mathematics, engineering, and computer science departments of colleges and universities. PASCAL has been implemented on several different computers including microcomputers.

TASKS

1. Give Russian equivalents of the following words and word combinations, transcribe them

1. convey (v.)

2. acronym (n.)

3. design (v.)

4. flexibility(n.)

5. maximum (adj.)

6. character (n.)

7. algebraically (adv.)

8. capability (n.)

9. unique (adj.)

10. versatile (adj.)

11. option (n.)

12. advantage (n.)

13. capability (n.)

14. terminal (n.)

2. Give English equivalents of:

1. набор правил

2. языки программирования

3. логические ступени (шаги)

4. план программы

5. таким образом

6. блок управления

7. интерпретировать инструкции

8. следовать инструкциям

9. язык для (программирования) экономических задач

10. решать задачи

11. обработка данных (работа с данными)

12. операции ввода-вывода

13. выполнять арифметические действия

14. требовать объяснения

15. структура, подобная предложениям

16. длина имени поля

17. идентифицировать поле и его цели

18. сочетание слов

19. язык программирования, основанный на алгебре

20. математическая связь (соотношение)

21. выражаться алгебраически

22. для научных применений

23. язык общего назначения

24. включать черты

25. подобный

26. значительно отличаться

27. основная программа

28. самая последняя версия

29. улучшить язык

30. дополнительные возможности

31. иметь преимущество над

32. легкоизучаемый язык программирования

33. непрофессиональный программист

34. основная цель

35. универсальный язык

36. математически–ориентированный язык программирования

37. как таковой

3. Read and translate the text.

4. Odd the definitions out.

1. A programming language is a set of rules that a programmer uses in compiling a program for a computer.

2. A programming language is a symbolic language invented only for mathematical operations.

3. A programming language is a language designed for specific purposes.

4. A programming language is a language conveying the logical steps of the program plan in such a way that the control unit of the CPU can interpret and follow the instructions.

5. A programming language is a language designed for the programmers to compile programs.

6. A programming language is a language used for logical steps of the program plan.

7. A programming language is a language designed mainly for input-output operations.

5. Match A and B

A

COBOL is… .

FORTRAN is… .

PL/I is… .

RPG is… .

BASIC is… .

PASCAL is… .

B

• business-oriented programming language

• machine -oriented programming language

• algebra-based programming language

• mathematically oriented programming language

• general-purpose programming language

• beginners- oriented programming language

• self-documenting programming language

• the most versatile programming language

• the most powerful programming language

• easy-to-learn programming language

• universal language for personal computers

• widely used

• not widely used

6. Continue the sentences with the detailed information on the types of programming languages.

1. At the lecture the professor told the students that COBOL… .

2. At the lecture the professor explained the students that the FORTRAN IV… .

3. At the lecture the professor also explained the students that PL/I… .

4. At the lecture the professor also explained the students that PL/I… .

5. At the lecture the professor informed the students that RPG II… .

6. At the lecture the professor said that BASIC… .

7. At the lecture the professor remarked that PASCAL … .

UNIT 15