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UNIT 12

Страдательный залог

(THE PASSIVE VOICE)

Страдательный залог означает, что кто-то или что-то подвергается действию. Он образуется с помощью вспомогательного глагола to be в соответствующей форме и времени и причастия прошедшего времени (Participle II, Past Participle), образованного от смыслового глагола.

GROUP OF TENSES	PRESENT	PAST	FUTURE
Indefinite Passive	am (is, are) invited	was (were) invited	shall (will) be invited
Perfect Passive	have (has) been invited	had (has) been invited	shall (will) have been invited
Continuous Passive	am (is, are) being invited	was (were) being invited	------

EXERCISES

1. Make up sentences using the passive voice.

Pattern 1: The students attend conferences.

The conferences are attended by students.

1. During the term the students read a lot of articles. 2. They speak English in Great Britain. 3. The professor answers questions. 4. They make no mistakes in their tests.

Pattern 2: The student made a presentation.

The presentation was made by the student.

1. We discussed an experiment yesterday. 2. They published an interesting article in this magazine. 3. He wrote an essay. 4. The student made a report at the conference.

Pattern 3: The teacher will examine the students.

The students will be examined by the teacher.

1. Mrs. Collins will teach us tomorrow. 2. The students will present the results of their work tomorrow. 3. They will organize a meeting. 4. He will sign the documents tomorrow.

Pattern 4: My brother has given an interesting book to me.

An interesting book has been given to me by my brother.

1. The teacher has explained this rule to us. 2. She has already finished this work. 3. The students have learnt a lot of English words. 4. I have already sent her a message.

Pattern 5: They had finished the work by the evening.

The work had been finished by the evening.

1. The students had learnt much by the end of the term. 2. I had installed the program by 3 p.m. 3. We had had discussed that problem by 8 p.m. 4. By the evening he had written an essay.

Pattern 6: The student will have typed the documents by the time I come.

The documents will have been typed by the student by the time I come.

1. The students will have done by the time you return. 2. I’ll have learnt everything by the time you come. 3. She will have translated an article by tomorrow evening. 4. He will have looked through the papers by tomorrow.

Pattern 7: They are compiling programs now.

The programs are being compiled now.

1. The professor is examining the students now. 2. The students are solving mathematical problems 3. We are discussing these questions now. 4. She is reading a book.

Pattern 8: I was rereading the article when you rang me up.

The article was being reread by me when you rang me up.

1. We were discussing an interesting problem. 2. I was playing computer games when somebody knocked at the door. 3. The professor was examining the students at that time. 4. The students were writing a test.

2. Translate into Russian.

1. Many new experiments were carried out by our students. 2. This experiment is being discussed now. 3. This fact is often referred to. 4. Everything will be explained to you. 5. Our present number system has not been so fully developed as it is today. 6. Euclid’s “Elements” has been used as a basis for all textbooks on geometry since his time. 7. The work had been completed by the end of the term. 8. The article was being looked for everywhere. 9. Several jobs were offered to me. 10. The equipment has been brought to the laboratory today. 11. This rule is usually taken no notice of. 12. Special attention is paid to programming. 13. The great future of semiconductors has been recognized. 14. This method was worked out in our research laboratory. 15. That day he was seen little of. 16. This picture has been already looked at. 17. Many algebraic problems are solved by means of equations. 18. These data will be tested tomorrow. 19. The professor was being waited for. 20. His invention is being much spoken of. 21. They were told that they would continue their research work. 22. He is always listened to with great interest.

3. Use the verbs in brackets in the appropriate form.

1. The problem (to discuss) now. 2. The article (to translate) by tomorrow. 3. At the publishing house I (to tell) that the book (to publish) by the end of the year. 4. Many new books (to buy) by our library last year. 5. This article (to discuss) now. 6. I hope the letter (to send) tomorrow. 7. The book is of great use because some important problems (to touch) upon. 8. The conference (to hold) in three days. 9. The conference (to hold) two days ago. 10. This problem (to discuss) when I entered the laboratory. 11. English (to speak) in Great Britain. 12. The articles (to look) already through. 13. The articles (to look) already through by the evening. 14. The text (to translate) by tomorrow evening.

TEXT 1

WHAT IS AN ELECTRONIC COMPUTER?

An electronic computer is a device that can accept information, store it, process it, and present the results of the processing in some acceptable form. A most important adjunct to this definition is that a computer is told how to process the information by instructions, which are stored in a coded form inside the computer. The coded instructions are called a program (modern usage prefers the word routine). We therefore speak of a computer as an internally-stored-program device.

Any computer contains devices for five main functions: input, storage, arithmetic, control and output. Input refers to the process by which information is put into the machine. Output is the process by which the results are moved out of the machine. Storage refers to the mechanism that can retain information during calculation and furnish it as needed to other parts of the machine. The arithmetic unit is that part of the machine, which can carry out one or more of the basic arithmetic operations on the information held in storage. Finally, the control refers to those parts of the machine that dictate the functions to be performed by all the other parts.

Originally input to the computer was provided by such things as punched cards or punched paper tapes. Storage was provided by a device such as a rotating magnetic drum or by magnetic cores. Arithmetic was carried out by various electronic circuits. Output was provided by such devices as punched cards, punched paper tapes, a typewriter, or a printer, which can print a complete line of information at a time.

TASKS

1. Give Russian equivalents of the words and word combinations. Transcribe them:

1. process (n.), (v.)

2. processing (n.)

3. present (v.)

4. usage (n.)

5. prefer (v.)

6. routine (n.)

7. arithmetic unit

8. control (n.)

9. refer to (v.)

10. mechanism (n.)

11. furnish (v.)

12. circuit (n.)

2. Give English equivalents of:

1. принимать информацию

2. представлять результаты обработки

3. в некоторой доступной (приемлемой) форме

4. весьма важное дополнение к этому определению

5. в закодированной форме

6. современное использование

7. устройство с внутренне хранимой программой

8. сохранять информацию в течение вычисления

9. как необходимо

10. выполнять основные арифметические действия

11. наконец

12. перфокарта

13. перфорированная бумажная лента

14. вращающийся магнитный барабан

15. магнитный сердечник

16. электронные схемы

3. Write out sentences which are in the Passive Voice.

4. Match the terms with the definitions

1. A computer

2. A special-purpose computer

3. A general-purpose computer

4. A program

5. An arithmetic unit

6. A storage (a core store, a memory)

7. A control unit

8. An input

9. An output

10. A printer

11. Peripherals

1. ______is a device that can accept information, store it, process it, and present the results of the processing in some acceptable form.

2. _______can be defined as coded instructions.

3. _______is a process by which information is put into the machine.

4. _______is a computer that can do only one job over and over again.

5. _______is a place where data can be held.

6. _______is that part of the computer which can carry out arithmetic operations (is a device for performing calculations).

7. _______is an output device for spelling out computer results as numbers, symbols and words.

8. _______is a computer that can do many different jobs.

9. _______is a process by which the results are moved out the machine.

10. _______refers to those parts of the computer that dictate the functions to be performed by all other parts (is a device for causing the machine to perform the desired operations in the correct order).

11. _______are the input and output devices.

5. Read and translate the text.

6. Learn the text.

TEXT 2

FROM THE HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

The story of the development of devices, and machines that led to the automatic computer goes back into the past. Probably the first ancient computing machine was the abacus. This device consisted of a slab divided into areas, and a supply of small stones for use as counters.

In 1642 Pascal, the French mathematician and philosopher, invented the first machine that added numbers mechanically. In 1673, another mathematician, G.W. Leibnitz, constructed a device able to multiply numbers.

The idea of a machine which would not only add, subtract, multiply, and divide but perform a sequence of steps automatically, store data and print out the results was first conceived in 1812 by Charles Babbage, a professor of mathematics of Cambridge University. But the machine had not been completely constructed. Just before World War II, Thomas Watson, head of IBM, constructed an electromechanical equivalent of Babbage's analytical machine known as Mark1.

In 1944 the first general purpose automatic digital computer was built by John Atanasoff, a physicist of Iowa State University, and his assistant, Clifford Berry. Based on Atanasoff's ideas, John Mauchly and Presper Eckert of the University of Pennsylvania produced one of the most influential computers called the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator). It was a massive machine consisting of 18,000 vacuum tubes and 1,500 relays. It contained 20 registers where numbers were stored. It added numbers at the rate of 5,000 additions per second. It also contained a multiplier, a “divider-square-rooter”, and other units. However, the limitations of the ENIAC became obvious very quickly as to change its function required rewiring a substantial part of the machine, which was a slow process. The solution to this problem belongs to John von Neumann. It was the stored-program concept, in which the sequence of instructions to be performed (called a program) could be entered and stored in the computer. The first machine using this concept was the EDSAC (Electronic Delayed Storage Automatic Computer), which was built at Cambridge University in 1949.

At the same time Mauchly and Eckert produced their own stored-program computer UNIVAC 1 (Universal Automatic Computer) in 1952. The UNIVAC 1 was a machine of the first generation. It used vacuum tubes, performed about 1000 instructions per second, and had a memory capacity of about 16,000 characters of data.

The era of the first-generation machine ended in 1959 when transistors replaced vacuum tubes. They increased computers reliability and computational speed, and reduced their volume, cost, and power consumption. The transistors were invented by John Bardeen, Houser Brattain, and William Shockley, the scientists of Bell Laboratories. The second-generation computers also incorporated advances in programming connected with the invention of new languages, such as assembly languages and FORTRAN. These languages were easier for programmers’ use.

The computers of the third-generation appeared about five years after the introduction of transistor-based computers. The invention that led to these computers was the integrated circuit, or I.C., which allowed many components to exist on a single small chip. IC's were compact, cheap to produce and more reliable than transistors. One of the most important products developed from the integrated technology was the microprocessor.

The computers of the fourth generation are based on circuits containing tens and hundreds of thousands of active electronic devices in tiny elements. Research is also being done on the construction of supercomputers. The fifth-generation machines are expected to appear. They will be based on VLSI and SLSI technologies. Optical fibers, videodiscs, and artificial intelligence techniques will be incorporated into them.

TASKS

1. Give Russian equivalents of the words and transcribe them

1. machine (n.)

2. automatic (adj.)

3. ancient (adj.)

4. abacus (n.)

5. area (n.)

6. supply (n.)

7. mechanically (adv.)

8. subtract (v.)

9. multiply (v.)

10. sequence (n.)

11. conceive (v.)

12. equivalent (n.)

13. purpose (n.)

14. digital (adj.)

15. physicist (n.)

16. influential (adj.)

17. numerical (adj.)

18. integrator (n.)

19. vacuum tube

20. relay (n.)

21. register (n.)

22. rewire (v.)

23. substantial (adj.)

24. character (n.)

25. era (n.)

26. reliability (n.)

27. assembly languages

28. integrated circuit

29. compact (adj.)

30. technology (n.)

31. tiny (adj.)

32. artificial (adj.)

33. intelligence (n.)

34. technique (n.)

35. Iowa

36. Pennsylvania

2. Give English equivalents of:

1. развитие устройств

2. привести к автоматическому компьютеру

3. изобрести первую машину

4. складывать числа механически

5. способный умножать числа

6. выполнять последовательность действий

7. хранить данные

8. распечатывать результаты

9. аналитическая машина

10. со скоростью

11. в секунду

12. ограничения стали очевидными

13. изменить функцию

14. медленный процесс

15. последовательность инструкций

16. в то же самое время

17. машина первого поколения

18. вместимость (объем) памяти

19. заменить вакуумные трубки

20. увеличить надежность компьютеров

21. скорость вычисления

22. потребление энергии

23. включать достижения в программировании

24. компьютеры, основанные на транзисторах

25. существовать на отдельной чипе

26. быть основанным на

27. на крошечных элементах

28. создание суперкомпьютеров

3. Read and translate the text

4. Fill in the gaps with dates and names. Put the sentences chronologically.

Dates

1642, 1673, 1812, just before World War II, 1944, 1949, 1952, 1959, about five years later.

Names

Pascal, Leibnitz, Babbage, Thomas Watson, John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry; John Mauchly and Presper Eckert; Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley.

Sentences:

1. In_____ an analytical computing machine which could perform mathematical operations automatically, store data and print out the results began to be constructed by_____; the construction of the machine had not been completed.

2. In _____ the EDSAC (Electronic Delayed Storage Automatic Computer) based on the stored-program concept, in which the sequence of instructions to be performed (called a program) could be entered and stored in the computer was built.

3. In _____transistors were invented by _____ ; with this invention the era of the second-generation machines began.

4. ________the computers of the third generation based on integrated circuit appeared.

5. Based on Atanasoff's ideas, _______ produced one of the most influential computers called the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator).

6. The calculating machine that could perform addition mechanically was invented in____ by ____.

7. In _____ the first general purpose automatic digital computer was built by ______.

8. ______, an electromechanical equivalent of Babbage's analytical machine known as Mark 1 was constructed by ______.

9. In _____ ________produced their own stored-program computer UNIVAC 1, a machine of the first generation.

10. The device able to multiply numbers was constructed in____ by_____.

5. Match A and B

A

1. The abacus

2. Pascal’s computing machine

3. The computing machine invented by Leibnitz

4. Babbage’s analytical computing machine

5. Mark I

6. ENIAC

7. EDSAC

B

1. That machine was built by Thomas Watson just before World War II, it was an electromechanical equivalent of Babbage's analytical machine.

2. It was the stored-program computer built in 1949, in which the sequence of instructions to be performed (called a program) could be entered and stored in the computer.

3. That device consisted of a slab divided into areas, and a supply of small stones for use as counters.

4. That device could add numbers mechanically.

5. That machine was built in 1944. It was the first general purpose automatic digital computer. It was a massive machine consisting of 18,000 vacuum tubes and 1,500 relays. It could perform arithmetic operations and store numbers.

6. That machine was able to multiply numbers

7. That machine was supposed to perform a sequence of mathematical operations automatically, to store data and print out the results. Its construction hadn’t been completed.

6. Choose the statements that characterize the computer generations

Computers of the first generation

1. These computers were stored-program computers based on vacuum tubes.

2. These computers performed about 1000 instructions per second, and had a memory capacity of about 16,000 characters of data.

3. These computers could only add numbers.

4. These computers used transistor-based technologies.

5. UNIVAC 1 was a representative of the computers of the first generation.

6. These computers appeared in 1952.

Computers of the second generation

1. These computers were massive machines based on integrated circuits.

2. These machines appeared in 1959.

3. These computers were stored-program computers that could perform arithmetic operations, store and print out the results of calculations.

4. These computers were based on transistors.

5. These computers incorporated the technologies that increased computers reliability and computational speed, and reduced their volume, cost, and power consumption.

6. These computers had less memory capacity than the first generation computers.

Computers of the third generation

1. These computers appeared in early 1960^th when transistors were invented.

2. These computers appeared in early 1960^th when transistors were replaced by integrated circuits

3. ENIAC was a representative of the third generation computer.

4. These computers were based on integrated circuits, which allowed many compo­nents to exist on a single small chip.

5. These computers were based on chip technologies that led to microcomputers.

6. These computers used punched cards and punched paper tapes.

Computers of the fourth generation

1. These computers are widely used nowadays.

2. These computers are based on superconducting switches.

3. These computers realize the stored-program concept.

4. These computers are based on circuits containing tens and hundreds of thousands of active electronic devices in tiny elements.

5. These computers can be used for the Internet access.

6. These computers can be upgraded easily.

Computers of the fifth generation

1. These computers appeared in 1998.

2. These computers are expected to appear.

3. These computers are supposed to use the stored-program concept.

4. They will be based on VLSI and SLSI technologies.

5. These computers will be based on transistors and integrated circuits.

6. These computers will incorporate optical fibers, videodiscs, and artificial intelligence techniques.

7. Learn the text.

UNIT 13