Standing – ['stndi] – 2 syllables

If we follow our phonetic instinct and go for two evenly balanced c-b-c variant we would prefer ['stn+di]. If we follow our grammatical instinct we would prefer ['stnd+i].

Some dictionaries can make a mark where a printed word may be hi-phonated if it appears at the end of the line, however it do not necessarily correspond to a semantic boundaries. It’s common knowledge that different languages are characterized by their syllabic structure in orthography and speech. In Russian syllables СГСГ type – boundaries after the vowel (мо-ло-ко).

Syllable division rules in English are:

1. In affixal words the syllabic boundary co-insides with the morphological boundary.

dis-plays, un-able, count-less

2. In words with CV-CV structure the syllabic boundary is after the accented vowel

far-mer, ci-ty

3. An intervocalic consonant tends to belong to the following syllabic structure

a-bout, wri-ting

4. English diphthongs are unisyllabic. They consist of one vowel phoneme. English triphthongs are disyllabic because they consist of two-vowel phonemes.

Science – ['sai-ns], flower – [fla-]

As to the number of syllables in the English word it can vary from 1 to 8 (unintelligibility – 8 syllables).

Come – 1 syllable, family – 3 syllables, unintelligibility – 8 syllables Functional characteristics of a syllable

The syllable as a phonological unit performs 3 functions:

1. Con΄stitutive lies in its ability to be a part of a word or a word itself (yes/ no). Syllable forms morphemes, words and even utterances. A syllable is a specific minimal structure of both segmental and supersegmental features.

2. Distinctive. The syllable is characterized by its ability to differentiate words and word forms. There are lots of combinations in English distinguished by means of the difference in the place of the syllabic boundary.

A name – an aim

Ice-cream – I scream

We loan – will own

An ice house – a nice house

An ocean – a notion

My train – might rain

Sometimes the difference in syllabic division might be the basic ground for differentiating sentences.

I saw her eyes – I saw her rise

I saw the meat – I saw them eat

3. Indentificatory. It’s condition by the pronunciation of the speaker so the listener can understand the exact meaning of the utterance, only if he perceives (воспринимает) the correct syllabic boundaries.

My train – might rain

The gentleman with a black tie has a blacked eye.

I scream whenever I take very cold ice-cream.

At all evening parties a tall boy invited Jill to dance.

It slips my tongue – It’s lips

Keep sticking – the clock keeps ticking

One zone – One’s own

Plum pie – plump eye

Fine day – find “A”

Russian learners of English should be well-aware of the syllabic structure, because wrong syllabic division on the articulatory level leads to misunderstanding or even confusion.

Word stress

1. The linguistic and acoustic nature of word stress

2. Types and degrees of the word stress

3. Functional approach to word stress

Accent – ударение

Accentuation – постановка ударения

To derive – происходить, возникать

Derivation – словопроизводство

To 'alternate – чередовать

To retain – удерживать

To denote – обозначать

'prefix – приставка

The sequence of syllables in a word is not pronounced identically. The syllables which are uttered with more prominence than the other syllables of the word are set to be stressed (accented). Stress is a greater degree of prominence which is caused mainly by pronouncing the stress syllable on a different pitch, with a change of it, with greater force of exhalation with greater muscular tension. The greater force of articulation is accompanied by an increase in the length at the sound, especially vowels. Vowels are never reduced in stress.

The nature of WS, the interrelation of its components is still a problem. There is a terminological confusion in discussing the nature of WS. Stress is defined differently by different linguists. Богородецкий defined stress as an increase of energy, accompanied by an increase of expiratory and articulatory activity. Denial Jones defined stress as a degree of force, which is accompanied by strong force of exhalation and gives an expression of loudness. Later he wrote that “stress or prominence is effected by inherent sonority, vowel and consonant length and by intonation”. Henry Sweet stated that stress is connected with a force of breath. Jimson admits that a more prominent syllable is accompanied by pitch changes in the voice of quality and quantity of the accented sound. ('contract, to contr'act). We may note that in the stress syllable the force of utterance is greater which is connected with more articulated sound; the pitch of the voice is higher, which is connected with stronger tenseness of the vocal force; the quantity of the vowel “a” in the verb is greater, the vowel becomes longer; the quality of the vowel “a” in an unstressed position is more narrow on the articulatory level.

Word stress can be defined as the singling out of one or more syllables in a word which is accompanied by the change of the force of utterance, pitch of the voice, qualitative, quantitative characteristics of a sound which is normally a vowel.

In different languages one of the factors constituting the word stress is normally more significant than the others. If special prominence in a stress syllable is achieved mainly through intensity of articulation it is called dynamic (forced) stress (traditionally in English). The majority of British phoneticians distinguish 3 degrees of word stress:

The strongest stress – primary stress

In polysyllabic words – secondary stress

Other – weak stress

The syllables bearing either primary or secondary stress are called stressed, while syllables with weak stress are called unstressed. Besides different types of word stress are distinguished according to their position. From this point of this there are 2 types: fixed and free. In languages with fixed word stress the main stress falls on a syllable which occupies in all the words of the language one and the same position in the relation to the beginning or the end of the word (French). In the Czech language the main stress falls on the initial syllable of each word. Russian word stress may be characterized as free as it may fall on the first, second, third, fourth syllable as well as on the last. (ёлка, поросёнок, лапша, крокодил). Word stress in English language is free, but its “freedom” is restricted (ограничен) by certain tendencies. There are certain factors that determine the place and even degree of word stress:

1. The oldest is known to be recessive (отступать). It consists in gradual on the first syllable. This tendency consists in placing the accent on the initial syllable oa nouns, adjective and verb and on the root syllable of words which belong to other parts of speech and have a prefix. In most cases these prefixes have lost their meanings. Recessive stress is of 2 types:

   1. Unrestricted falls on the initial syllable. It is observed in the majority of native English words of this type. (mother, father, husband, wife)

   2. Restricted falls on the root of native English words with a prefix, which has no meaning. (begin, apart)

2. Rhythmical tendency. Rhythm is alternation of stress and unstressed syllables. The recessive and rhythmical tendencies didn’t determine the position of stress in English words which were borrowed from the French language. In these words the accent has remained on the final syllable as in French.