грамматика+учебник

УДК 811.111.81’366

ББК 81.2.Англ – 2

Ш 85

Ответственный редактор:

Кандидат филологических наук Л.П. Шрамко

Рецензент:

Кандидат филологических наук Л.А. Томашевская

Шрамко Л.П., Погребная И.Ф., Рябцева И.Г., Степанова Е.Н.

Ш 85 Практическая грамматика английского языка: Учебник по грамматике английского языка для студентов 1-3 курса Института филологии, журналистики и мкк. – Ростов н/Д: ЮФУ, 2015

Учебник состоит из двух частей: «Морфология» и «Синтаксис». В первой части содержатся базовые сведения о частях речи английского языка, их свойствах и нормах употребления в современном английском языке. Во второй части представлены правила построения простого и сложного предложений, особенности членов предложения и способы их выражения, а также правила пунктуации.

УДК 811.111.81’366

ББК 81.2.Англ – 2

© Шрамко Л.П., 2015 © Погребная И.Ф.

© Рябцева И.Г. © Степанова Е.Н., 2015

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CONTENTS

Part 1: Morphology

The Noun

The category of number

The category of case

Gender

Noun determiners and quantifiers

The Article

Use of articles with common nouns

Articles with countable nouns

Use of articles with countable nouns modified by attributes

Use of articles with uncountable nouns

Articles with the nouns of material

Articles with abstract nouns

Articles with nouns in some syntactic functions and patterns

Special cases of the use of articles

Use of articles with proper nouns

Articles with personal names

Use of articles with personal names modified by attributes

Articles with geographical names

Articles with other proper nouns

The Pronoun

Personal pronouns

Possessive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns

Indefinite pronouns

Negative pronouns

Defining pronouns

Reciprocal pronouns

Interrogative pronouns

Relative pronouns

Conjunctive pronouns

The Adjective

Degrees of comparison

Substantivized adjectives

The words of the category of state

The Numeral

Cardinal numerals

Ordinal numerals

The Adverb

The place of an adverb in a sentence

Degrees of comparison of adverbs

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The Verb

The categories of Tense and Aspect

The category of Voice

The category of Mood

Modal Verbs

The Non-Finite Forms of the verbs (Verbals)

Infinitive

Gerund

Participle

The Interjection

The Preposition

The Conjunction

Part II: Syntax

The simple sentence

The composite sentence

Punctuation

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PART I: MORPHOLOGY

PARTS OF SPEECH

THE NOUN

The noun is a part of speech denoting substance in a wide sense. They denote persons, places, things, concepts, qualities, organizations, communities, feelings, events, etc.

Nouns have the following morphological characteristics:

-Nouns that can be counted have the category of number (the singular and the plural);

-Nouns denoting living beings and some nouns denoting lifeless things have the category of case (the common case and the genitive case).

Nouns have the following syntactical characteristics:

The noun can be used in a sentence in the syntactical functions of subject, object, predicative, attribute, and adverbial modifier.

CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS

According to their meaning nouns can be classified into Proper nouns and Common nouns.

Proper nouns are individual names given to separate persons or things. They can be divided into personal names, geographical names, names of months and days of the week, names of ships, hotels, clubs, etc. In general, words which begin with capital letters and are not at the beginning of sentences are called ‘proper’ nouns.

Common nouns are names that can be applied to any individual of a class of persons or things, to collections of similar individuals or things regarded as a single unit, materials, and abstract notions. They can be divided as in the table below.

CLASS / CONCRETE NOUNS

They denote persons or things belonging to a class. They are countable, e.g. a flower

- flowers, a tree - trees, a man - men.

COLLECTIVE NOUNS

They denote a number or collection of similar individuals or things regarded as a single unit. They can be divided into the following groups:

-Collective nouns used only in the singular and denoting a number of things collected together and regarded as a single object, e.g. foliage, furniture, luggage, baggage, machinery, equipment;

-Nouns of multitude singular in form though plural in meaning, e.g. police, poultry, cattle, people, gentry, etc. If such noun is used as subject, the verb used as predicate is in plural.

-Nouns that may be both singular and plural, e.g. family, audience, crowd, public, press, committee, council, crew, fleet, nation, group, team, party, staff, government, management, army, names of organizations (the UN, Coca-Cola).

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NOUNS OF MATERIAL

They denote material or substance, e.g. iron, gold, water, snow, etc. They are uncountable.

Nouns of material can be used in the plural to denote different sorts of a given material, e.g. Foods are not allowed here.

Nouns of material turn into class nouns when they begin to denote an object of definite shape made of this material, e.g. a glass, an iron.

ABSTRACT NOUNS

They denote some quality, state, action or idea, e.g. kindness, fear, fight, etc. As a rule, they are uncountable, but some of them are countable, e.g. an idea, an hour, etc.

They can turn into class nouns if they denote objects, possessing qualities denoted by abstract nouns, e.g. a beauty - beauties, a sight - sights, etc.

THE MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF NOUNS

Nouns can have the following morphological structure.

THE CATEGORY OF NUMBER

Besides the classification given above, nouns can be divided into countable and uncountable. Countable nouns have singular and plural forms that can be built in different ways.

1. Most of the nouns build their plural form by adding the ending -s or -es. The ending -s/es can be pronounced in different ways:

-The ending -s is pronounced [iz] after sibilants and affricates, e.g. noses, horses, bridges;

-The ending -s is pronounced [z] after vowels and voiced consonants other than sibilants and affricates, e.g. beds, bees;

-The ending -s is pronounced [s] after voiceless consonants other than sibilants and affricates, e.g. caps, books.

The ending -es is added in the following cases:

-if a noun ends in -s, -ss, -x, -sh, -ch, -tch, e.g. bus - buses, glass - glasses, box - boxes, brush - brushes, bench - benches, match - matches;

-if a noun ends in -y preceded by a consonant (-y is replaced by-i), e.g. lady - ladies; Note: In proper nouns the ending -s is added: Mary – Marys.

If the final -y is preceded by a vowel, the ending -s is added: day – days.

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- if a noun ends in -o preceded by a consonant, e.g. hero - heroes, potato – potatoes.

Note: There are some exceptions, e.g. piano - pianos, photo - photos, solo - solos;

If -o is preceded by a vowel, the ending -s is used, e.g. cuckoo – cuckoos, portfolio

- portfolios.

Some nouns have both forms: mosquito - mosquitos, mosquitoes.

With certain nouns the final voiceless consonants are replaced with corresponding voiced consonants and either –es or –s is added; the change in pronunciation isn’t necessarily reflected in spelling:

2.The following nouns form their plural by changing the root vowel: man -men, woman - women, foot - feet, tooth - teeth, goose - geese, mouse -mice, louse - lice.

3.The following nouns form the plural by adding the ending -en: ox - oxen, child - children, brother – brethren (poetic).

4.The following nouns have homonymous singular and plural forms: a deer – deer, a sheep – sheep, a swine – swine, a fish – fish, a craft – craft; some nouns ending in –s in singular do not change in plural: a means – means, a headquarters – headquarters, a series – series, a species – species, a works – works.

5.The noun person has two plural forms: people and persons; but the form ‘persons’ is used in formal context:

There are 4 people waiting for you. This vehicle takes 4 persons.

6. Some nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek keep their original plural forms: analysis – analyses, bacterium – bacteria, basis – bases, crisis – crises, criterion – criteria, curriculum – curricula, datum – data, focus – foci, formula – formulae, nucleus – nuclei, phenomenon – phenomena, thesis - theses. Some of them can also have regular forms, e.g. focuses, formulas.

Some nouns that originally were plural are coming to be uncountable: the data are → the data is; the media are → the media is.

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In compound nouns the ending is usually added to the head word, if it is a noun stem. It can be either initial or final: a brother-in-law – brothers-in-law, a passer-by – passersby, a lady-bug – lady-bugs.

If there is no noun stem in a compound noun, the ending -s is added to the final element: forget-me-not – forget-me-nots, a grown-up – grown-ups.

If the second element of a compound noun is -man, the root vowel is changed: a sportsman – sportsmen, a postman – postmen.

If the first element of a compound noun is man or woman, both elements are changed according the rules: a man-servant – men-servants, a woman-doctor – women-doctors.

There are nouns in English that have only plural forms:

-some nouns denoting pieces of clothing, trousers, shorts, pyjamas (pajamas); tools and instruments binoculars, glasses, spectacles, scissors, scales, games billiards, cards, dominoes, draughts and nouns that do not refer to any particular semantic group such as belongings, contents, clothes, goods, headquarters, outskirts, premises, refreshments, surroundings, thanks, troops, whereabouts have plural meaning and are not used in the singular;

-nouns denoting subjects or science, such as phonetics, physics are usually used as singulars;

-the noun politics can be used both as singular and plural;

-the noun news is treated as singular.

THE CATEGORY OF CASE

Case indicates the relation of the noun to the other words in the sentence. Nouns denoting living beings and some lifeless things have two cases: the common case and the genitive case.

The common case is the uninflected form, i.e. it has no grammatical ending. The genitive case is the inflected form. It is formed by adding -'s (the apostrophe s) to the noun in singular and only ' (apostrophe) to the nouns in plural ending in -s, e.g. girl - girl's, girls - girls', man - man's, men - men's, but: Dickens - Dickens', Dickens's.

The "apostrophe s" may refer to a whole group of words, e.g. brother and sister's,

Jane and Mary's.

The ending -s is pronounced [iz] after sibilants and affricates, e.g. prince's, witch's, judge's, Dickens's.

It is pronounced [z] after vowels and voiced consonants other than sibilants and affricates, e.g. mother's, man's.

It is pronounced [s] after voiceless consonants other than sibilants and affricates, e.g. bishop's, student's.

There are two forms of the genitive case. They are the dependent genitive and the absolute genitive. The dependent genitive precedes the noun it modifies, while the absolute genitive is used without a noun.

The dependent genitive with nouns denoting living beings has several meanings:

-It denotes possession or possessive meaning, e.g. Mary's book;

-It denotes family relations, e.g. John's brother;

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-It has partitive meaning (when a part of a whole or a part of a body is named), e.g. the baby's eyes, this family's member;

-It denotes a doer of an action or creation (subjective genitive) or an object of an action (objective genitive), e.g. Tom's step, Tom's reception;

-It denotes qualitative relations, e.g. officer's uniform, student's gown.

The genitive case of the nouns naming lifeless things may denote the relations between a part and the whole, e.g. ship's deck. In most cases this meaning is expressed without the ending -'s, e.g. a computer keyboard.

The genitive case is widely used with nouns denoting time, space, weight, place, e.g. (a) two days' leave, the field's edge, a pound's worth, Asia's largest city, etc.

There are some peculiarities that should be remembered:

-We can built compound nouns according the model “noun + noun” to express measurements: a ten-dollar note, a two-week course, a five-mile walk, a two-bedroom cottage, a four-pound chicken, a two-storey house;

-The noun “worth” can be preceded only by a noun in the genitive case: fivedollars’ worth of candies, a pound’s worth of apples, twenty rubles’ worth of butter;

-Time measurement can be expressed by nouns in the genitive case and by compound nouns (the use of the indefinite article is different in these cases): a day’s trip, five days’ trip, a five-day trip, ten minutes’ break, a ten-minute break;

-The common case of nouns denoting days and parts of the days are used when we speak about things or events that happen regularly: the evening newspaper, an evening show, a Sunday meeting; the genitive case is used when we speak about some particular things or events: last Saturday’s match, tomorrow’s newspaper, yesterday’s show.

The absolute genitive can be used anaphorically (instead of the noun it modifies):

Her face resembles her brother's.

It can also have local meaning, i.e. denote some place, e.g. at the baker's, at my

Mom's.

The absolute genitive may be introduced by the preposition of:

She is no relation of Mary's.

The phrase "something of somebody" is alternative to the dependent genitive in some of its meanings. It can be used to express family relations, creation and place, e.g. the twin of the girl, the 5th symphony of Beethoven, the largest cities of Asia. It is generally used in order to draw attention to the word put at the end of the phrase and it is more common in formal and written English. The phrase can express quantity when used with lifeless things, e.g. a glass of water. It is not used to express possession.

GENDER

There is no grammatical gender for nouns in English. Few nouns referring to living beings can be male or female, e.g. waiter - waitress, lion - lioness, actor - actress, salesman - saleswoman, etc. In other cases the nouns denote either male or female beings, e.g. man - woman, uncle - aunt, brother - sister, son - daughter.

Nouns denoting lifeless things are usually treated as neuter, but the nouns sea, ship,

Britain can be referred to as female: Look, she is a nice ship.

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SYNTACTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF NOUNS

The noun can be used in different syntactic functions:

-Subject: This woman looks older than she is.

-Object: She took the letter and read it slowly. She looked attentively at the man standing in front of her.

-Predicative: My friend is a student.

-Attribute: John's brother doesn't look like John at all. She is a friend of my brother's. The house door was open wide.

-Adverbial modifier: There is nobody in the room now. Let's meet at my sister's. At night it became cold again.

NOUN DETERMINERS AND QUANTIFIERS

As a rule nouns are used with determiners. Determiners include the following groups of words:

-articles (a/an, the);

-demonstrative pronouns (this/these, that/those);

-possessive pronouns in the conjoint form;

-indefinite pronouns some, any;

-defining pronouns each, every, either;

-negative pronouns no, neither,

E.g. a book, this street, my hand, some sugar, no water, etc

Nouns may be also preceded by quantifiers. They precede nouns with or without attributes. Quantifiers denote an indefinite quantity of objects or substance (some, any), a larger quantity (much, many, a lot of), or a smaller quantity (few, a few, little, a little). The choice of a quantifier depends on the number of objects mentioned and on whether the noun is countable or uncountable.

Some is used in affirmative statements, offers, and requests to denote an indefinite quantity of something:

There is some water in the jar. – В кувшине вода. Would you like some tea? – Хотите чаю?

The stressed form of some denotes a restricted or limited quantity of something:

I like some music. – Какую-то музыку я люблю.

I can't eat some kinds of fish. – Я не могу есть некоторые виды рыбы.

Any is used in interrogative and negative sentences when quantity is not important:

Is there any bread at home? – Дома есть хлеб? There isn't any bread on the table. – Дома нет хлеба.

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