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а) After the verbs of sense perception see, hear, watch, feel, notice, etc. Participle I is mostly used, though Participle II is also possible.

He watched the girl walking away forever. She felt the water growing colder.

She heard the words said but didn't comprehend the meaning.

b) After the verbs of mental activity expect, consider, understand, etc. Participle II is mostly used.

Theу considered him involved in the business.

с) After the verbs denoting wish want, wish, etc. Participle II is used.

He wants this letter typed as soon as possible.

d) After the verbs have, get Participle II is used when we speak about arranging for things to be done:

He had his hair cut.

He got his dinner delivered.

After the verb make Participle II is used and it usually follows a reflexive pronoun:

They made themselves understood.

THE SUBJECTIVE PARTICIPLE CONSTRUCTION

It is а construction in which the Participle is in predicate relation to а noun in the common сasе or а pronoun in the nominative сasе. In the sentence it is used as а complex subject. It is mostly used with the verbs of sense perception see and hear.

Manу times they were seen walking in Hyde Park.

The verbs watch and notice are not used with this construction. Participle II can be also used to express the passive meaning:

Theу were seen stopped by а policeman.

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THE INTERJECTION

The Interjection is a word or a phrase used to express strong emotions. They are ah, oh, alas, well, dear me, etc. If an interjection stands by itself, it is followed by an exclamation mark. Within a sentence it is set off with a comma. Interjections are used as independent elements of a sentence, i.e. they are not connected grammatically with any part of the sentence:

Ah! Here you are!

Why, you don't look like your brother. Well, you can try again.

THE PREPOSITION

A preposition is used to express a relationship between a noun, a pronoun, or a gerund and other words in a sentence. Usually it stands before a word it refers to:

A friend of mine told me the news. The door of the house was wide open.

The person behind you wants to say something. After sleeping she felt much better.

A preposition can be separated from the word it refers to:

Who do you want to talk to?

Prepositions have the following morphological structure:

According to their meaning prepositions are divided into those of place, direction, time, and abstract relations:

She is at home now. There is nothing on the table. Let's go to the park. She gets up at 7 o'clock. After breakfast she leaves for work.

I'll do it with pleasure. She'll be upset because of you.

Some prepositions are polysemantic and are used to express different relations, e.g. at, for:

She is at school. She comes home at noon.

She'll do it for you. She has lived there for two months.

Some prepositions are homonymous with conjunctions (since, after, before) and adverbs (after, before).

Prepositions are not used as independent parts of the sentence. A preposition and the word, to which it refers, form a prepositional phrase that can perform the function of a prepositional object, attribute, predicative, or adverbial modifier:

Prepositional Object – Let’s go with them.

Attribute – I didn’t recognize the person in front of me.

Predicative – It is of no importance.

Adverbial modifier – He is in the park now.

THE CONJUNCTION

A conjunction is used to connect parts of sentences, phrases, or clauses:

You can do it but not now. Trees and bushes were in blossom. She will cope because she is smart.

Conjunctions have the following morphological structure.

There are three types of conjunctions: coordinating, correlative and subordinating.

A coordinating conjunction connects words, phrases and clauses that perform the same function in the sentence:

He likes to run and play football.

She is not going to help you or anybody else. The sun was shining and the air was getting warmer.

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A correlative conjunction is a conjunction that consists of two or more words that function together. Correlative conjunctions connect words and phrases that perform the same function in the sentence:

He likes both football and volleyball. You can either play in the yard or watch TV.

They neither work nor study.

Whether you stay or go, the life will go on its own way.

A subordinating conjunction introduces a subordinate clause and connects it to the main clause expressing various types of relationship:

They will come after you invite them.

Somebody will answer you if you ask.

Since you know the facts, I'm not going to repeat them again.

John already knew about the latest developments because they were on TV. Do it as I do.

She walked as if her feet were of stone.

Though she didn't like her neighbour, she couldn't refuse to help him. Come earlier, so that we could have tea and talk a little.

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PART II: SYNTAX

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

GENERAL NOTION AND CLASSIFICATION

OF SIMPLE SENTENCES

A sentence is a unit of speech whose grammatical structure conforms to the laws of the language and which serves as the chief means of conveying a thought. A sentence is not only a means of communication but also a means of showing the speaker’s attitude.

The classification of the simple sentences is based on 2 principles:

According to the purpose of utterance we distinguish 4 kinds of sentences:

1.A declarative sentence states a fact in the affirmative or negative form

Children are fond of going to the Zoo. This is not my pen.

2.An interrogative sentence asks a question. It is formed by means of inversion. There are 4 kinds of questions: general, special, alternative and disjunctive.

Have you chosen teaching as a career? Where is the library?

Is it your bag or mine?

You don’t think so, do you?

3. An imperative sentence is used to induce a person to do something, so it expresses commands, requests, etc.

Put it on the table. Do have some more tea.

4. An exclamatory sentence expresses some kind of emotion. These sentences usually begin with the words what or how, but there is no inversion in them.

What a good time we've had today! How delightful her manners are!

An exclamatory sentence can also have the form of a general question.

Hasn't she grown! Is she gorgeous!

A to the structure simple sentences are divided into two-member and one-member sentences.

A two-member sentence has two principal members – a subject and a predicate. If one of them is missing it can be easily understood from the context. A two-member sentence may be complete or incomplete. It is complete when it has a subject and a predicate.

He was thinking.

It is incomplete when one of the principle parts or both of them are missing, but can be easily understood from the context. Such sentences are called elliptical and are mostly used in colloquial speech and especially in a dialogue.

What are we doing? - Speaking.

A one-member sentence is a sentence having only one member which is neither the subject nor the predicate. This doesn’t mean, however, that the other member is missing, for the one member makes the sense complete.

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One-member sentences are used mostly in descriptions and in emotional speech. If the main part of a one-member sentence is expressed by a noun, the sentence is called nominal. The noun may be modified by attributes

Freedom! Bells ringing out, flowers, kisses, wine.

The main part of a one-member sentence is often expressed by an infinitive.

No! To have his friendship, but not at that price.

Simple sentences, both one-member and two-member, can be unextended and extended. The sentence consisting only of the primary or principle parts is called an unextended sentence.

Birds fly.

An extended sentence is a sentence consisting of a subject, a predicate and one or more secondary parts (objects, attributes, and adverbial modifiers).

The two native women stole glances at Sarie.

WORD ORDER

DIRECT WORD ORDER

Word order in English is more important than it is in Russian. The place of a word in a sentence shows its relation to other words. Word order in English is fixed. Every position in a sentence has a certain functional significance. Thus the place of a noun before a finite verb shows that the noun is the subject while the place of a noun after a verb shows that it is an object. The word order is the only means of distinguishing between a subject and a direct object expressed by a noun. That’s why a subject and a direct object cannot exchange places without the change of meaning.

Compare the following Russian and English sentences with different word order: (R) Коты едят мышей. Мышей едят коты.- The meaning of sentences (1) and

(2)is the same.

(E)Cats eat mice. Mice eat cats. – The change of the subject and object positions determines the change of meaning of the whole sentence. So the word order in an English declarative sentence is fixed and direct.

In most cases it is as follows:

Attributes can be in pre-position and in post-position to the modified words. In the sentence they can modify subject, object and predicative.

Another day of waiting was over. She will give you the further instructions.

She was a lovely child of five or six.

The position of an adverbial modifier is relatively free. It can occupy the following positions in a sentence:

1) Initial position ( at the beginning of a sentence)

Sometimes it gets really hot here.

2) Interposition (between the subject and the predicate or between the auxiliary and the notional verb).

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He often comes to this place. He has never said anything of the kind.

3) Post position ( immediately after the finite verb)

She won’t come here with us.

4) Final position ( at the end of the sentence)

She is making this report tomorrow.

If there are several adverbial modifiers, they stand in the following order: a) after the verbs of motion:

INDIRECT WORD ORDER / INVERSION

Inversion or inverted word order is the order of words in which the subject is placed after the predicate. The inversion is partial when only a part of the predicate is placed before the subject

The inverted word order is used in 1. Questions:

(General) Do you want to help him? (Alternative) Would you like tea or coffee? (Special) What are you doing?

(Tag) She is smart, isn’t she?

Questions to the subject or subject group have the direct word order :

Who is helping you?

How many people have already come?

2. Declarative sentences beginning with the adverbs there, neither, so, thus, etc.:

There is somebody in the room. I like it. – So do I.

I don’t know him. – Neither do I.

Thus thought Mr. Brown but it was never confirmed.

3. Declarative sentences beginning with the adverbial modifier of place or direction, especially when it is expressed by the adverbs here, down, out, etc.:

Not very far away stood another brick house. Here comes Helen!

Down came the tree.

The inverted word order can be used for the purpose of emphasis:

Only once did they meet but he has never forgotten the day. Clever he wasn’t.

4. Exclamatory sentences expressing wish:

Be it so! May it happen!

5. Subordinate clauses of condition joined to the principal clause asyndetically when the predicate contains the verbs was, were, had, could, should:

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Had you come in time, you would know the facts.

Should you meet him again, ask him to write to us. 6. Inversion can be also used for emphasis in the following cases:

It can occur in sentences which have adverbial modifier at the beginning:An adverbial modifier of place

In the far corner stood a large gloomy wardrobe.

An adverbial modifier with a negative meaning

Never again will I tell you anything

An adverbial modifier expressed by one of the following adverbs: so, thus, now, then etc. The subject in these cases is expressed by a noun.

Then came disappointment and despair and there was no way to cope with them

An adverbial modifier of manner.

Slowly and patiently did he explain it again and again. Note: The use of an auxiliary verb is obligatory in such sentences.

An adverbial modifier preceded by the adverb only.

Only later did he realize the truth. Only there will you find the answer.

Note: The use of an auxiliary or modal verb is obligatory in such sentences.

Partial inversion occurs in clauses introduced by the adverbs hardly or scarcely correlated with the conjunctions when, and the adverb no sooner correlated with the conjunction than

Hardly had they made up their mind when the problems began to arise one after another.

No sooner had she started to explain, than she was told to wait.

Partial inversion can occur in sentences beginning with the conjunction nor

I haven’t met him since. Nor do I want to see him again.

Inversion takes place in sentences beginning with the adverb here which is not the adverbial modifier of place.

Here was the paper he had been looking for.

Note: If the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun, the word order is direct:

Here you are at last!

Inversion can occur in sentences beginning with postpositions denoting direction:

Away moved the train and soon disappeared completely

If the subject is expressed by a pronoun, the word order is direct.

Out he went, silently closing the door.

Partial Inversion can occur in sentences, which begin with an object or an adverbial modifier expressed by a group of words: not a N, many a N:

Not a word did he say about you. Many a time had they tried to persuade him.

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Inversion can occur in sentences which begin with the predicative expressed by the demonstrative pronoun such, by an adjective or a noun modified by an adjective

Such are the facts and we can do nothing about it. Horrible was the suggestion he made.

Note: If the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun, the link verb follows it: A gloomy place it was

PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

A sentence can contain principal parts, secondary parts and independent elements. The principal parts of the sentence are the subject and the predicate. The secondary parts are the object, the attribute, and the adverbial modifier. The independent elements of a sentence are interjections, parenthesis, and direct address.

THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

THE SUBJECT

The subject is the principal part of a two-member sentence which is grammatically independent of the other parts of the sentence and on which the predicate is grammatically dependent, i.e. in most cases it agrees with the subject in number and person. The subject can denote a living being, a lifeless thing or an idea. It can be expressed in the following way:

The subject is called compound when it consists of two components combined by the conjunction and

The manager and the staff are at the meeting now.

It AS THE SUBJECT OF THE SENTENCE

When the pronoun it is used as the subject of a sentence and represents a living being or a thing, it is a notional subject. Sometimes, however, it doesn’t represent any living being or thing and performs a purely grammatical function. In this case it is a formal subject.

When it is a notional subject the pronoun it has the following meanings:

1) It stands for a definite thing or some abstract idea – the personal it.

The door opened. It was opened by a young girl.

2) It points out some person or thing expressed by a predicative noun, or it refers to the thought contained in a preceding statement, thus having a demonstrative meaning – the demonstrative it.

It is John. It was a large room with a great window.

In the last two cases it is close to this and is usually translated into Russian by это. Sometimes the pronoun it is a formal subject, i.e. it does not represent any person or

thing.

Here we must distinguish:

1) the impersonal it, 2) the introductory or anticipatory it and 3) the emphatic it. 1) The impersonal it is used:

to denote the state of the weather or the state which characterizes the environment. In such sentences the predicate is either a simple one, expressed by a verb denoting the state of the weather, or a compound nominal one, with an adjective as predicative.

It often rains in autumn. It is often cold in winter.

to denote time and distance.

It is five minutes past six. How far is it from your office to the bank?

NOTE: Sentences with the impersonal it as subject very often correspond to Russian impersonal one-member sentences: It is late – Поздно.

The following sentences, however, correspond to Russian two-member personal sentences: It is snowing. – Идет снег.

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