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The work is to be finished on time.

THE USE OF THE PASSIVE VOICE

Transitive verbs are usually used in the Passive Voice:

All the questions were answered.

The Passive Voice is used when the agent is obvious or not important:

She was born in 1982.

The time-table has been changed.

It may be used to avoid mentioning the person performing the action:

The job will be done.

It is often used in reports and official announcements:

The refugees were fed and settled.

Delegates are registered downstairs.

The Passive Voice is used to describe processes:

The vegetables are washed and then they are frozen.

The Passive Voice is often used in scientific texts:

The construction is used after a number of verbs.

There are some peculiarities concerning the use of the Passive Voice:

1. The verbs report, announce, say are often used with the introductory it:

It was announced that our flight was delayed.

2. When we use verbs that have both the direct and the indirect object, either object can be the subject of the passive sentence:

The book was given to me. I was given the book.

However, the subject denoting a person is more common:

He was taught English.

She will be told the news when she comes.

If the preposition to with the indirect object is obligatory (explain to, describe to, suggest to), only the direct object can become the subject of the passive sentence:

The reasons were explained to them many times.

If the direct object is expressed by a subordinate clause or an infinitive phrase, the introductory ‘it’ is used as the formal subject:

It was explained to us how to get to the station.

3. When we use verbs having prepositional and non-prepositional objects, only the non-prepositional object can become the subject of a passive sentence:

I haven't been told about their arrival yet.

4. We mention the agent only when this information is important:

The book was written by the man who is absolutely unknown.

5. When the agent is mentioned, the preposition by is used if the agent is responsible for the action:

The door was opened by an old woman.

The preposition with is used when the instrument of the action is mentioned:

The letter was written with a pencil.

Some verbs make it possible to use either by or with:

The building was surrounded by policemen.

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The building was surrounded with policemen.

6. Intransitive verbs used with prepositions can form the passive voice:

He is often laughed at.

7. Phraseological units such as find fault with, make fun of, pay attention to, take care of can be used in the passive voice too:

Don't worry; everything will be taken care of.

8. The subject of a passive construction can correspond to the adverbial modifier of place of the active construction:

This house is not lived in.

9. A number of transitive verbs are not used in the passive voice. They are have, lack, fit, suit, resemble.

PASSIVE VOICE AND THE COMPOUND NOMINAL PREDICATE ‘BE + PARTICIPLE II’

The simple verbal predicate expressed by a verb in the Passive Voice can be homonymous with the compound nominal predicate expressed by the link verb be + Participle II.

The simple verbal predicate expresses an action, while the compound nominal predicate expresses the state of the subject.

We left the house and the door was closed behind us. The door was closed and we had to knock.

The simple verbal predicate is translated into Russian by a verb denoting an action, while the compound nominal predicate can be translated by the verb “быть” and the short form of the participle (e.g. “закрыли”, “была закрыта”). If it refers to the Present the verb “be” is not translated into Russian.

The use of tenses is connected with the type of predicate. Perfect forms are more common if the predicate is simple verbal.

The door had been already locked when we came. (S. V. Pr.) The door was locked when we came. (C. N. Pr.)

The predicate is simple verbal expressed by the verb in the Passive Voice in the following cases:

a) When the doer of the action is indicated:

They were shown into the room by the maid.

b) When there is an adverbial modifier of place, frequency or time:

The newspaper is published in Rostov. They are always invited to these parties. This book was written several years ago.

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c) When the verb is used in a Continuous or Perfect form:

The breakfast is being cooked. The breakfast has been cooked. We have the compound nominal predicate in the following cases:

a) The verb has the form of the Present, Past or Future Indefinite:

The door is (was, will be) locked.

b)The verb is in the Present or Past Perfect, while to denote an action we need a Perfect Continuous form:

The suit cases had been packed for three hours but we still couldn’t leave. We had been packing the suit-cases for three hours before we finished.

c)Participle II denotes a state of mind and the object introduced by the preposition by denotes the cause of the state but not the doer of the action:

We were frightened by the perspective.

TRANSLATION OF THE SENTENCES WITH THE PASSIVE VOICE INTO RUSSIAN

1. In some cases the structure of Russian and English passive sentences is the same:

The book was written a couple of years ago. –

Книга была написана пару лет назад.

2.The English Passive sentence can have the Russian equivalent with the Active Voice:

He was born in London. — Он родился в Лондоне.

3.The subject of the Passive predicate in English may correspond to the adverbial modifier in Russian:

The house was not lived in. – В доме не жили.

Вдоме никто не жил.

4.A number of transitive verbs in English correspond to intransitive verbs in Russian. In these cases English Passive constructions have no Russian Passive equivalents:

The questions were answered. — На вопросы ответили.

The lecture was followed by demonstration. – За лекцией последовал показ.

5.Passive constructions with the verbs like report, announce, say, explain are often translated into Russian by means of the indefinite personal constructions:

It was reported that the victims of the accident were taken to hospital. –

Сообщалось,... Сообщили,...

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MODAL VERBS

GENERAL NOTION

There is a group of verbs, which are called modal verbs or modal auxiliaries. They are used to express speakers’ judgement, attitude or interpretation of what they are speaking about. Modal verbs can perform different communicative functions. They can express requests, offers, advice, suggestions, invitations, asking for or granting permission, commands, prohibitions, etc. Modal verbs can also present a situation as possible, probable, obvious, doubtful, necessary, unnecessary, desirable, etc.

What meaning modal verbs express very often depends on the context: on the sentence structure, on the form of the infinitive of the notional verb, on the situation described in the sentence, and on the situation in which the sentence is uttered. Even intonation can sometimes change the meaning of the modal verb. We will show it detail when we deal with separate modal verbs.

There are pure modal verbs, which can express only modal meanings - can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, ought, will, would. There are also semi-modal verbs and phrases, which can also function as notional verbs - have to, be to, need, dare, be able to, had better, be going to.

Pure modal verbs have the following morphological characteristics:

1)They don't take the ending ‘-s’ for the 3d person singular, Present Simple;

2)They are followed by the bare infinitive of the notional verb, with the exception of ‘ought’;

3)The negative form is built by adding the negative particle ‘not’ to the modal verb;

4)Modal verbs are inverted with the subjects to form questions;

5)Only the modal verbs can, may and will have past forms (could, might and would respectively), while the other modal verbs have no past forms.

Semi-modal verbs have to, and the phrase be able to have the same paradigm as notional verbs and they are followed by an infinitive with the particle ‘to’. The verb be to and the phrase be going to are not used in future tenses. The verbs need and dare combine the morphological features both of modal verbs and those of the notional verbs. The phrases had better and would rather have only one form each.

CAN

The modal verb can has two forms - can for the present and could for the past. The modal verb can is used to express the following meanings.

1. The verb can is used with non-perfect infinitive of the notional verb to denote physical or mental ability of the subject of the sentence to perform the action denoted by the notional verb. The form could is used to express ability in the past:

We can read this text, as it isn't difficult. We could read English books last year.

The modal phrase be able to is used to supply the missing tense forms of the infinitive:

We have been able to come in time because we took a bus. We'll be able to help you as soon as we finish this exercise.

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I'd like to be able to help you.

The phrase be able to differs from the verb can in its meaning. The verb can expresses permanent ability, while be able to combines ideas of ability and achievement; it also expresses ability due to circumstances:

We could do it, but didn't want to.

We were able to do it, because you helped us.

The phrase ‘used to be able to do something’ means ‘could before but can no longer’:

When a boy, he used to be able to run faster than anybody.

The phrase able to and the verb manage can be used when speaking about one specific action in the past:

He was able (managed) to come yesterday because he was free.

The form ‘could + non-perfect infinitive’ is used to express hypothetical ability in the present or future. The form ‘could + perfect infinitive’ is used to express hypothetical ability in the past:

I could come earlier if there were a train in the morning. He could have written to you if he had known your address.

2. The verb can is used with non-perfect infinitive to denote possibility:

a) General possibility

In this case we say that situations are possible theoretically or in general:

Don’t get upset – the weather can change for the better.

We thought he could be busy and didn’t call him.

b) Possibility due to circumstances:

His pictures cannot be exhibited here, as they are too extravagant. John can be on his way home already. He doesn’t stay in the office after 5.

c) Possibility due to the existing laws, rules, regulations:

You can borrow books from the library if you need them.

d) Phrases “can’t help something” and “can’t help doing something” are used when we want to say that we do something in spite of ourselves:

I was late again. But I couldn’t help it.

I couldn’t help overhearing them – they were talking too loudly.

Phrases “cannot do but” and “could not do but” are used to emphasize the only possible thing to do:

What could we do but tell her the truth?

3. The verb could is used to express hypothetical possibility and the time reference is expressed by the form of the infinitive of the notional verb:

You could still see them here walking hand in hand. You could have heard her singing there.

4. The verb can with non-perfect infinitive is used when asking for permission, granting or denying permission:

-asking for permission: Can I pass here?

-granting permission: Yes, you can. Everybody goes this way.

-denying permission: No, you can't. The path is to your left.

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Both can and could are used in reported speech when we talk about the permission already given or refused, and about things that are (or are not) allowed by laws or rules:

They said we could enter whenever we came.

I don’t think we can park here – there is a sign.

The past form of the phrase be allowed is used when we talk about permission for one particular action in the past:

We were allowed to enter though we were late.

5.The negative form of can with non-perfect infinitive is used to express prohibition, which is determined by laws, situation or natural state of things:

You cannot cross the street when the street light is red.

6.Both can and could are used to express request, could being more polite:

Can you help me now? Could you do me a favour?

7. Both can and could with non-perfect infinitive are used in questions and statements to express offers and suggestions. These meanings can be further particularized as offering help, offering something, suggesting some arrangement, invitation etc.:

Offer:

Can / Could I make tea for you? I could make tea if you want some.

Suggestion:

He could go out with us if he has nothing better to do.

Invitation:

You could join us at one of the weekends.

8.Could is used to express criticism or reproach for failing to do something that is expected. ‘Could + indefinite infinitive’ is used if reproach refers to the present situation, ‘could + perfect infinitive’ is used to express reproach for a past situation:

You could help me. You certainly could have told me about it.

9.Both can and could are used to express supposition (speculation) implying doubt and incredulity in interrogative sentences or surprise in special questions and almost assurance in negative statements. Indefinite and non-perfect continuous infinitives of the notional verb refer the action denoted by this verb to the present or future, while perfect forms of the infinitive refer the action denoted by the notional verb to the past:

Can you really believe it? How could you believe it? Could she have really told him the details? She cannot be working now. It's too late.

He couldn't have done it so quickly. It's absolutely impossible.

When the action denoted by the notional verb refers to the present, we often use the continuous infinitive to avoid ambiguity:

She can't work now.

(I am sure that she doesn't work now. She is not able to work now.) She can't be working now. (I am sure she doesn't work now.)

As the negative form of the infinitive is not used in sentences expressing doubt and incredulity, other ways expressing negation are used. We can use phrases can it be that

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and it cannot be that or the verb fail followed by the indefinite infinitive of the notional verb:

Can it be that he doesn't know the facts yet? It cannot be that she didn't want to see you.

Can he fail to understand what I mean? She couldn't have failed to pass the test.

You can also express negation lexically:

Can she forget it (fail to remember)?

She couldn't have refused (not wanted) to help you. Can you know nothing (not know anything) about it?

Depending on the situation the modal verb can have different meanings and the sentence can perform different communicative functions:

We could help you. Why didn’t you ask us? – Possibility

We could help you if we knew what you want. – Hypothetical possibility We could help you. We are absolutely free now. – Suggestion

The form of the infinitive of the notional verb is closely connected with the meaning of the verb:

Could you do him a favour? – Request Could you be doing him a favour? – Doubt

You cannot talk about it with strangers. – Prohibition

You cannot be talking about it with strangers. – Negative assurance

MAY

The modal verb may has two forms - may for the present and might for the past. The modal verb may is used to express the following meanings.

formal permission

May I use the phone here?

Yes, you may, if it is an emergency.

- denying permission (prohibition):

No, you may not. You may not use the telephone in my office.

The form might is used to express permission in clauses following the rule of the sequence of tenses:

The conductor said we might take the dog along.

Permission in the past is expressed by the verbs allow, permit and let:

The teacher allowed us to use dictionaries. He didn't let us enter.

2. May with non-perfect infinitive expresses polite request in interrogative sentences if the subject is the personal pronoun 1st person:

May I trouble you? May I sit here for a while?

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3. May with non-perfect infinitive expresses an offer in interrogative sentences if the subject is the personal pronoun 1st person:

May I help you?

4.Might with non-perfect infinitive is also used to express suggestions:

We might start right now. There is an earlier train, I’m sure.

5.May with non-perfect infinitive is used to express possibility due to circumstances (absence of obstacles to the action):

It isn't late and he may still come.

The form might is used according to the rule of the sequence of tenses:

I thought he might still come.

6. The form might is used to express hypothetical possibility and the form of the infinitive of the notional verb shows the time reference, i.e. whether it refers to the present or to the past:

If it were not so late he might come.

If it hadn't rained yesterday, we might have gone out of town.

7. The form might is used to express criticism or reproach and disapproval;

a)‘might + indefinite infinitive’ expresses a request made in the tone of disapproval:

You might help me to carry this bag. Don't you see it's heavy?

b)‘might + perfect infinitive’ expresses reproach for failing to do what was in one’s power:

He might have helped you; he saw that you needed help.

8. Both may and might are used in statements to express the meaning of supposition (speculation) implying doubt or uncertainty. Might means the higher degree of doubt. The form of the infinitive of the notional verb shows the time reference:

He may (might) come in the evening. He usually does. He might be happy, but he doesn't look it.

9. Phrases ‘may as well’, ‘might as well’ are used to show that you will do something you do not really want to do:

I may as well watch TV if there is nothing more to do.

MUST

The modal verb must has only one form that refers to the present. The verbs have to, be to, and be obliged are used to supply the missing forms:

We'll have to look through these papers again. They had to admit the truth. We are to meet tomorrow. She was obliged to do it this way.

The modal verb must has the following meanings:

1. It is used to express obligation, necessity, and duty implying no freedom of choice. In this meaning, it is followed by the indefinite infinitive only:

Children must obey their parents,

The verb have to is more commonly used to express necessity and obligation arising out of circumstances, while must expresses obligation imposed by the speaker:

I have to hurry, or I'll be late.

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You must hurry. I'm not going to wait for you forever.

The verb must is replaced by the verb have to in the indirect speech according to the rule of the sequence of tenses:

He said we had to go immediately.

In public notices must expresses an obligation imposed by some authorities:

Passengers must cross the railway line by the footbridge.

The verb must denotes necessity arising out of the nature and consequently inevitable. The same meaning can be also expressed by the verb be to:

Bad seeds must produce bad corn.

The absence of obligation or necessity is expressed by the negative form of the verbs need, have to and have got to:

You needn't say it again. We don't have to write this essay. He hasn't got to leave now.

2. The verb must is used to express commands, orders, urgent and emphatic requests and suggestions. It is followed by the indefinite infinitive only and doesn’t change according to the rule of the sequence of tenses:

You must leave the room at once. You must visit us as soon as possible. He said we must leave the room at once.

3. The negative form of must is used to express prohibition that is rather a command or an order not to do something. The indefinite infinitive of the notional verb is used:

Visitors must not feed animals at the zoo. You must not discuss this question now.

4. The verb must is used in affirmative statements to express supposition (speculation), implying strong probability, bordering on assurance or almost a conviction. As the modal verb must has only one form, the form of the infinitive of the notional verb expresses the time reference. Indefinite and non-perfect continuous infinitives refer the action of the notional verbs to the present, while perfect infinitives refer the action of the notional verb to the past:

You must know her as she was in your group. They must be waiting for us. They must have heard the news already.

When the action expressed by the notional verb refers to the present we often use the continuous infinitive to avoid ambiguity:

He must work hard. He must be working hard.

We usually don’t use the negative form of the infinitive after the verb must to express supposition. Modal words and phrases are used instead:

He is not likely to come today. Probably, he didn't know about your arrival.

The verb must is not used to express supposition about future actions, but modal words and phrases are:

He will evidently come at nine. It's likely to rain tonight.

5. The phrase ‘if you must’ is used when you allow something you don't approve of:

If you must talk, do it outside please.

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HAVE (TO)

The verb have to is a semi-modal verb and it has a full morphological paradigm. It forms interrogatives and negatives with the help of auxiliary verbs as all notional verbs do:

Do you really have to stay there so late?

He didn't have to tell us the news. We knew it already.

The verb have to can express the following meanings:

1.The verb have to is used to express necessity or obligation arising out of circumstances. The phrase have got to can be also used to express necessity or obligation referring to the present:

I've missed the train, now I'll have to wait for the next one. I've got to go by train; there is no other way to get there.

I have to go there by train. I had to hurry to catch the train.

2.The verb have to is used to express absence of necessity in negative sentences. The phrase have got to can be used if the situation refers to the present:

I don't have to go there because they have telephoned. I haven't got to go there.

I didn't have to wait long at the doctor's yesterday. You won't have to do anything there.

3. The verb have to is used to give instructions and recommendations when telling how to do something:

You have to mix flour and butter first.

Sometimes these sentences may sound like advice.

4. The verb have to is used in affirmative statements to express supposition (speculation) implying strong probability when you are sure that something is happening or will happen:

There has to be an answer to this question. The price of houses has to go up sooner or later.

BE (TO)

The verb be to is a semi-modal verb. Its present and past forms can express modal meanings.

1. The verb be to expresses obligation or necessity arising out of arrangement or plan. The non-perfect forms of the infinitive are used:

Where are we to meet? - We are to meet at the station. You are to finish the work and then you may go.

In this meaning the phrase “be supposed to do sth” can be synonymous to the verb “be to” meaning that something is expected or required according to a rule, custom or arrangement:

We were supposed to meet at 5 o’clock.

When the previously arranged action is not carried out the perfect infinitive is used:

He was to have made a speech at the meeting, but he fell ill.

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